DENGUE VIRUS
1. Context
Dengue has expanded its footprint across the country over the last two decades due to climate change, increased urbanization with a temperature-controlled environment, and rapid urbanization leading to a shortage of utilities such as running water.
2. What is Dengue?
- The dengue virus is a member of the Flaviviridae family and is responsible for causing dengue fever, a significant global health concern.
- This virus is transmitted primarily through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes, with Aedes aegypti being the primary vector.
- Dengue infections can range from asymptomatic or mild cases to severe forms, including dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS), which can be life-threatening.
Key Characteristics of the Dengue Virus:
- Serotypes: There are four distinct serotypes of the dengue virus: DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4. Each serotype can cause the full spectrum of dengue disease, but subsequent infections with different serotypes increase the risk of severe disease.
- Genome: The dengue virus has a single-stranded RNA genome that encodes for three structural proteins (capsid, precursor membrane, and envelope) and seven non-structural proteins.
- Replication: The virus replicates in both mosquitoes and humans. In mosquitoes, it infects midgut cells and salivary glands, facilitating transmission. In humans, it replicates in various tissues, including skin, lymph nodes, and spleen.
Transmission: Aedes mosquitoes are the primary vectors responsible for transmitting the dengue virus. When an infected mosquito bites a person, the virus is introduced into the person's bloodstream. Once inside the human body, the virus replicates and spreads, leading to the onset of dengue symptoms.
3. Which virus causes dengue?
- The virus responsible for causing dengue is known as the dengue virus.
- It belongs to the Flaviviridae family and is classified into four distinct serotypes: DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4.
- These serotypes are closely related but distinct variations of the dengue virus.
- Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity to that specific serotype but only temporary immunity to the others.
- Subsequent infections with different serotypes increase the risk of severe dengue, as the immune response can sometimes enhance the virus's replication, leading to more severe symptoms.
4. Why it is spreading in India
The spread of dengue in India can be attributed to a combination of factors, including environmental, climatic, socio-economic, and public health aspects. Some of the key reasons for the spread of dengue in India are:
- Climate and Environment: Aedes mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti, which are responsible for transmitting the dengue virus, thrive in warm and humid environments. India's tropical and subtropical climate provides favorable conditions for the breeding and survival of these mosquitoes.
- Urbanization and Population Growth: Rapid urbanization and population growth have led to increased construction and improper waste management, creating more breeding sites for mosquitoes. Urban areas with crowded populations and inadequate sanitation can facilitate the transmission of dengue.
- Water Storage Practices: Aedes mosquitoes prefer to breed in clean, stagnant water. Improper water storage practices, such as uncovered containers or discarded tires, provide breeding sites for these mosquitoes. Many communities lack proper waste disposal mechanisms, contributing to mosquito breeding.
- Lack of Vector Control: Inadequate vector control measures, including limited use of insecticides, mosquito repellents, and larval control methods, contribute to the increased presence of Aedes mosquitoes in residential areas.
- Travel and Migration: The movement of people, including tourists and migrant workers, can contribute to the spread of dengue from one region to another. Infected individuals can carry the virus and introduce it to new areas where susceptible mosquito vectors are present.
5. Is there any vaccine for dengue in India?
- The first dengue vaccine approved for use in the country is called "Dengvaxia," which is manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur. Dengvaxia is a tetravalent vaccine, meaning it provides protection against all four serotypes of the dengue virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4).
- Dengvaxia is indicated for individuals aged 9 to 45 years who have a history of laboratory-confirmed previous dengue infection. This is because the vaccine's safety profile is better established in individuals who have been previously exposed to the virus. The vaccine helps to reduce the risk of severe dengue disease in those who have had a prior infection.
- It's important to note that Dengvaxia is not recommended for individuals who have not been previously infected with the dengue virus, as there is evidence suggesting that the vaccine can lead to more severe disease in individuals without prior exposure.
- The availability and usage of the dengue vaccine may vary across different regions and healthcare settings within India. As with any vaccine, its administration should be carried out under the guidance of healthcare professionals, taking into consideration individual medical histories and risk factors.
6. What do you understand by the DNA Vaccines?
- DNA vaccines, a cutting-edge innovation in the field of immunization, offer a novel way to stimulate the immune system's response against pathogens.
- Unlike traditional vaccines that use weakened or inactivated pathogens, DNA vaccines harness the power of genetic material to trigger immunity.
- They hold immense potential for combating a range of diseases, from infectious diseases to cancers, by leveraging the body's own cellular machinery.
7. Indian Council of Medical Research
- The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is the apex body in India responsible for coordinating and promoting biomedical research in the country.
- Established in 1911, it operates under the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
- The ICMR plays a crucial role in shaping the health research landscape, addressing health challenges, and advancing scientific knowledge.
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For Prelims: Dengue Virus, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), and dengue shock syndrome (DSS).
For Mains: 1. Analyze the Role of Climate Change in the Increasing Incidence of Dengue Virus Infections and its Implications for Public Health. (250 words).
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Source: The Indian Express
SHIV SHAKTI
1. Context
Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced Saturday (August 26, 2023) that the point where the Chandrayaan-3 lander touched down on the lunar surface on Wednesday would be named Shiv Shakti. He was speaking at the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) headquarters in Bengaluru, where he met the scientists who contributed to the mission’s success.
2. Ownership of the Moon: Legal Framework and Limitations
1966 UN Outer Space Treaty:
- During the Cold War era, the US and USSR were vying for supremacy in various domains.
- The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs established the Outer Space Treaty in 1966.
- The treaty aimed to regulate space exploration and prevent territorial claims on celestial bodies.
Prohibition of National Appropriation:
- Article II of the treaty clearly states that celestial bodies, including the Moon, cannot be claimed as sovereign territory by any nation.
- National appropriation through occupation, use, or any other means is prohibited.
Cooperative Exploration Emphasized:
The treaty promotes collaboration among countries in their space exploration endeavors.
It underscores the principle that space exploration should be a shared global effort.
Flag Planting vs. Legal Consequences:
- Although a nation can plant a flag on the Moon, it holds no legal implications.
- Alexander Soucek from the European Space Agency emphasizes that flag placement doesn't confer ownership rights.
Absence of Naming Provisions:
- The treaty does not address the issue of naming specific sites on the Moon.
- Naming locations on the Moon is not explicitly regulated by the treaty's provisions.
3. Lunar Landing Site Naming: Roles of the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
International Astronomical Union (IAU) and Naming Rules:
- The International Astronomical Union (IAU) oversees nomenclature for celestial bodies and their features.
- India is one of the 92 member nations of the IAU.
- Established in 1919, the IAU plays a pivotal role in naming planetary and satellite features.
Informal and Formal Naming Practices:
- Scientist Paul D. Spudis, formerly associated with the Lunar and Planetary Institute in the US, highlighted the naming process.
- Earlier, limited information about the Moon's far side was available due to its synchronous rotation with Earth.
- American and Soviet spacecraft brought high-quality images, enabling the naming of major far-side craters after scientists and engineers from these nations.
IAU Approval and Far-Side Features:
- Craters on the Moon's far side received names of notable scientists and engineers.
- These names were submitted to the IAU for official approval and inclusion in the lunar nomenclature.
Apollo Mission Practices:
- During the Apollo missions, landmarks were informally named to facilitate communication.
- Small craters and mountains near landing sites received informal names, while official names like "Hadley Rille" were also used.
- Many informal names from the Apollo era were later granted official status by the IAU.
4. IAU's Procedure for Naming Planetary Objects:
IAU's Role in Naming Planetary Objects:
- The International Astronomical Union (IAU) guides the process of naming celestial features.
- Decisions and recommendations by the IAU aren't legally binding but establish conventions for astronomical understanding.
Naming Process Overview:
IAU's Working Groups manage the naming process. The procedure includes several stages for proposing and reviewing names:
Initial Naming Themes:
When surface images of a planet or satellite become available, themes for naming features are chosen.
Members of the relevant IAU task group suggest names for essential features.
Progressive Naming:
As higher-resolution images and maps emerge, investigators responsible for specific surfaces suggest names for additional features.
Public Suggestions:
Individuals can propose names for consideration by a Task Group. However, name acceptance isn't guaranteed.
Task Group and Working Group Review:
Names endorsed by the task group are presented to the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN).
Approval and Gazetteer Entry:
Following successful review and voting by WGPSN members, names become official IAU nomenclature.
Approved names are listed in the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature and on the IAU's website.
Objections and Resolution:
Any objections to approved names can be raised by contacting the IAU General-Secretary within three months of the name's website placement.
Illustrative Example: Chang'e 5 Mission:
- In December 2020, China's Chang'e 5 mission landed on the Moon, naming its landing site "Statio Tianchuan."
- "Statio" is Latin for a post or station, also used in NASA's Apollo 11 site name "Statio Tranquillitatis."
- "Tianchuan" originates from a Chinese constellation name, translating to "ship sailing in the Milky Way."
- IAU approved the name in May 2021.
5. Naming Norms for Space Objects: IAU's Guidelines
IAU's Naming Recommendations:
- The International Astronomical Union (IAU) provides guidelines for naming space objects.
- For planetary objects, names should be "simple, clear, and unambiguous," avoiding duplication.
Prohibited Significances:
- Names with political, military, or religious connotations are not allowed.
- Except for pre-19th-century political figures, names with such significance are barred.
Commemoration and Eligibility:
- Commemorating individuals on celestial bodies isn't the primary goal but can be considered under special circumstances.
- Deceased individuals must have been so for at least three years before their nomination can be proposed.
Unpredictable Naming Patterns:
- Notably, the naming of specific craters doesn't follow a predictable pattern.
- Neither scientific prominence nor contribution guarantees the selection of a crater for naming.
- Eminent figures like Galileo and Newton have insignificant features named after them.
Greco-Roman Mythology Influence:
- In the past, satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were named after Greco-Roman mythological figures.
- The IAU expanded the naming scope to include descendants of Zeus/Jupiter and allowed names of giants and monsters from other mythologies.
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For Prelims: Shiv Shakti, 1966 UN Outer Space Treaty, International Astronomical Union (IAU), Apollo missions, and Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN).
For Mains: 1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics. Explain critically (UPSC GS3, 2017)
2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC GS3, 2016) |
Source: The Indian Express
STATE OF INDIA'S BIRDS (SoIB)
1. Context
A large number of bird species in India are either currently declining or projected to decline in the long term, according to a report based on data from about 30,000 birdwatchers that was released on Friday (August 25). Out of the 942 bird species that were assessed, 142 are diminishing and only 28 are increasing
2. Bird Species in India
India is home to a diverse range of bird species due to its varied landscapes, climate, and ecosystems
India is home to a diverse range of bird species, with over 1,350 recorded
here are some notable bird species found in India:
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Indian Peafowl: The national bird of India, known for its vibrant and iridescent plumage.
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Indian Roller: A colorful bird with shades of blue and green that is often seen perched on wires or tree branches.
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Indian Paradise Flycatcher: A stunning bird with long tail feathers, known for its elegant appearance.
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Asian Koel: A bird known for its distinctive "kuhoo" call, often associated with the arrival of the monsoon.
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Brahminy Kite: A medium-sized bird of prey with striking reddish-brown plumage.
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Indian Pitta: A brightly colored bird with a green and blue back and a coral red belly.
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Painted Stork: A large wading bird with striking black and white plumage and a distinctive pink bill.
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Indian Pond Heron: A small heron with mottled brown and white plumage, often found near water bodies.
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Greater Flamingo: These iconic pink birds can be found in various wetland areas across India.
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Sarus Crane: The tallest flying bird, with a distinctive red head and neck, often seen in wetlands.
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Indian Hornbill Species: Including the Indian Grey Hornbill, Malabar Pied Hornbill, and Oriental Pied Hornbill.
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Indian Vulture Species: Including the critically endangered Indian White-rumped Vulture and Long-billed Vulture.
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Indian Robin: A small bird known for its distinctive orange breast and white belly.
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Common Kingfisher: A brightly colored bird often seen perched near water bodies, known for its swift dives to catch fish.
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Rose-ringed Parakeet: A common parrot species with bright green plumage and a distinct ring around its neck.
3.Major threats to birds in India
3.1. Climate Change
- The average global temperature has risen by over 1 degree Celsius since pre-industrial times, resulting in catastrophic consequences not only for humans but also for other living beings, like birds.
- Climate change affects bird reproduction and survival through the disruption of species interactions by phenological mismatches, it occurs when the timing of annual events like breeding, nesting and migration become out of sync.
- According to report "Mismatches in seasonal timing (of migration, breeding, emergence) between birds and their prey can reduce survival and reproduction and also lead to fatal competition with other species"
- Soaring temperatures force sedentary birds to go through rapid adaptive changes. For instance, Amazonian birds over 50 years lost body weight to lose heat more efficiently
- Moreover, sapping heat compels birds to change their behaviour. They tend to spend more time looking for shade instead of searching for food. This can have an adverse effect on their survival and reproduction.
- Climate change leads to new and dangerous interactions between different species. A case in point is Hawaii, where with rising mercury, mosquitoes have colonised higher altitudes. This has given rise to malaria among mountain birds (Yes, humans aren’t the only ones who get malaria from mosquitoes)
3.2. Urbanisation
- The most urbanised regions in India have the least number of bird species, the least number of rare species, and the fewest insectivorous species, according to the report.
- It’s because urbanisation results in loss of natural habitat for birds and it exposes them to more air pollution and high temperatures.
- Not only this, cities have noise pollution, which forces birds to “sing louder, or at different frequencies, or, in the worst case, to abandon otherwise suitable habitat,”
- Meanwhile, light pollution may confuse and disorient them, causing them to collide with buildings.
- Ultimately, lack of food supplies in urban areas leads to the homogenisation of bird communities as only behaviourally dominant species such as House Crows and feral Rock Pigeons are able to survive.
3.3. Monoculture
- Monoculture is the practice of growing one type of seed in a field at a time.
- In India, commercial monoculture plantations of rubber, coffee, and tea have been rapidly expanding in recent years. For example, tea plantations have grown from 5,214 sq km to 6,366 sq km from 2003 to 2020
- Oil palm plantations have also increased across the country with expanding hotspots located in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the northeastern Himalaya.
- However, such plantations are detrimental to the well-being of birds. The report mentioned: “Commercial monocultures are known to harbour fewer bird species than natural forests within the same biome.”
- For instance, oil palm plantations in Mizoram support only 14% of the bird species found in comparable rainforests.
- In Uttarakhand, teak plantations can shelter just 50% of the total woodpecker species seen in the state’s sal forests.
3.4. Energy Infrastructures
- In the context of the looming climate crisis, countries have started to generate power using renewable resources instead of depending on conventional methods like coal-fired power plants.
- It has led to an increase of wind turbines in a country like India, where they have been installed in a wide range of landscapes including coastal areas, Western Ghats mountaintops, open arid lands, agricultural lands, and grasslands.
- Although wind turbines are eco-friendly, they have emerged as a threat to birds, the report has revealed.
- A wide range of species are known to have been killed due to collisions with wind turbines. Several of them have migrated to regions where there aren’t such giant devices.
- The report said the transmission lines have also led to the death of many large-bodies species because of collision and numerous small-bodies species have been electrocuted. “A literature review reveals that over 60 species from 33 families of birds are affected by collisions and electrocution at power lines in India,”
Source: indianexpress
LOANABLE INTEREST THEORY
1. Context
The theory, which is attributed to Swedish economist Knut Wicksell, is seen as applying not just to the interest rates charged on loans. It is also said to apply to other credit transactions such as those in the bond market where businesses and governments issue bonds to borrow money from savers.
2. Understanding the Neo-Classical Theory of Interest: Loanable Funds Perspective
- The neo-classical theory of interest, often referred to as the loanable funds theory, posits that interest rates on loans are determined by the interplay of supply and demand in the market for loanable funds.
- This framework asserts that the market interest rate functions as the price of loans, akin to how prices for goods and services are set in other markets.
- This theory attributes changes in interest rates to shifts in the supply of and demand for loans from different economic agents.
- This discussion aims to unravel the tenets of this theory and scrutinize its implications.
3. Supply and Demand Dynamics in Loanable Funds
- In the loanable funds theory, the supply of loanable funds is dictated by savers, including households, who opt to allocate their resources to lending.
- An increase in the supply of funds from savers is believed to cause a decline in the market interest rate, whereas a reduction in supply leads to an increase in interest rates.
- Conversely, the demand for loanable funds arises from borrowers, such as businesses and governments, seeking financial resources for various purposes.
- A surge in borrowing demand prompts higher interest rates, while diminished borrowing requirements correspond to lower interest rates.
- Essentially, the loanable funds theory underscores the influence of both lenders and borrowers on shaping market interest rates.
4. The Concept of Interest as Compensation
- According to proponents of the loanable funds theory, the payment of interest on loans serves as an incentive for savers to relinquish their funds, as they must await a certain duration before reclaiming their initial investment.
- This perspective views interest as a justifiable reward for the patience exhibited by lenders. On the flip side, borrowers' willingness to pay interest hinges on the potential returns they anticipate from investing borrowed funds, often gauged by the marginal productivity of capital.
- The equilibrium market interest rate emerges as the point of convergence between the supply of savings and the demand for loans, engendering mutually beneficial outcomes for both lenders and borrowers.
5. Extending Loanable Funds Theory to Financial Markets
- The loanable funds theory, attributed to the Swedish economist Knut Wicksell, transcends the realm of interest rates on loans.
- It extends its applicability to various credit transactions, notably in the bond market. Businesses and governments issue bonds to raise capital from savers, and the interest rates tied to these bonds are influenced by lenders' willingness to commit funds to these instruments.
- The bond market vividly illustrates the dynamics of lenders determining future cash flows' worth.
6. Critiques and Alternative Theories
- Nevertheless, the loanable funds theory faces opposition from economists who advocate the pure time preference theory of interest.
- Contrary to the notion that borrowers pay for loans, this alternative view asserts that interest rates reflect the cost savers bear for deferring consumption in favor of future goods or money.
- It contends that interest rates are not a direct incentive for borrowing but a result of the preferences of savers to invest their resources.
- This perspective suggests that high interest rates may not necessarily stimulate more savings and lending, but could reflect broader economic factors such as confidence levels.
- Furthermore, the concept of a "demand for loans" is scrutinized by pure time preference theorists.
- They argue that strictly speaking, borrowers do not create a demand for loans; instead, the market for loanable funds revolves around the supply of future money, which lenders bid on.
- This perspective underscores the pivotal role of lenders' preferences in influencing interest rates, rather than borrowers' demand for loans.
7. Conclusion
The neo-classical theory of interest, framed within the loanable funds perspective, contends that interest rates are determined by the interplay of supply and demand in the market for loanable funds. It positions interest rates as compensation for savers and a factor shaped by borrowers' expected returns. However, alternative theories, such as the pure time preference theory, question the premise of borrowers' demand for loans and emphasize the role of savers in shaping interest rates. This divergence of perspectives invites a deeper exploration into the intricate mechanisms that govern interest rate dynamics in our complex economic landscape.
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For Prelims: Loanable Interest Theory, Neo-Classical Theory of Interest, Concept of Interest, and Financial Markets. For Mains: 1. Discuss the Neo-Classical Theory of Interest (Loanable Funds Theory) and Its Central Tenets in Determining Interest Rates on Loans. (250 words). |
Source: The Hindu
MEO MUSLIM COMMUNITY
1. Context
Communal clashes that broke out in Haryana’s Nuh district, following a religious procession on July 31 this year, have seen the larger Mewat region coming into focus. It is spread across the states of Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and is also home to the Meo Muslim community.
2. Meos
- The Meo Muslim community is a Muslim community found in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
- They are a distinct community with their own language, culture, and customs. The Meo language is a dialect of Punjabi, and the Meo people are known for their strong martial tradition
- The Meo community is believed to have originated in Central Asia, and they migrated to India in the 12th century.
- They were originally Hindu, but they converted to Islam in the 14th century.
- The Meo people have faced discrimination and persecution throughout their history, and they have often been the target of violence
3. History of Meos
- Historians believe that the Meos were initially not Muslims and were gradually converted to Islam during the 12th to 17th centuries by the Sultans of Delhi up to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb”.
- The Delhi Sultanate began in the early 13th century, with the Khilji dynasty’s rule. It fell to the Mughals in the middle of the 16th century.
- Aurangzeb is considered the last Mughal to have ruled at the height of the dynasty, in the 18th century, though their rule continued beyond that
- But other historians have disagreed, describing a more gradual change. “We use the word ‘conversion’ as a modern concept. There was no such large-scale complete conversion in the time we are talking about, the 14th-15th century,”
- The word ‘Meo’ is used to describe those who might have been the aboriginal population from the hills. They also could have had links to the Meena tribal group
- The Meos were appointed chieftains by the rulers of Delhi. For instance, Raja Nahar Khan, a Meo, was designated as ‘Wali-e-Mewat’ by the Delhi Sultan Ferozshah Tughlaq in 1372. Raja Hasan Khan Mewati is another example.
- He was the last chieftain of Mewat and fought in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, for the side of Rajput king Rana Sangha against Babur, and lost.
4. Religious Practices of Meos
As the Meos follow syncretic religious traditions, they appear to be a distinct community. “The members of the community even celebrate Hindu festivals like Diwali, Holi and Teej along with festivals of Islam. The Sufi movement, led by the great Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, also played a role in the community gravitating towards syncretic traditions under Islam,”
5. Meos as a Criminal tribe
The Meos took part in what is often termed India’s “First War of Independence” against British colonial rule in 1857.
As a result, the entire community was declared a “criminal tribe” under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, as “a punishment” for their active participation
History, says that nearly 10,000 Meos died in the early battles against British colonial rule
But after this categorisation under the Act, members of such groups would be under surveillance by authorities and presumed to be guilty of committing offences almost automatically
Once labelled as a criminal tribe they were denied opportunities to progress further, resulting in them turning to crimes for subsistence
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: (UPSC 2019)
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above is correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 2, 3 and 4 C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C
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Source: indianexpress
