1. Context

2. About the Directorate of Enforcement 

2. Unclassed Forests

• Unclassed forests, also known as deemed forests, are areas of land that possess forest-like characteristics but have not been officially classified or notified as protected forest areas.
• These forests may vary in terms of ownership, ranging from government entities such as forest departments or revenue departments to community-owned or privately-owned lands.
• Despite their ecological significance, unclassed forests often lack legal protection, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation and degradation.
• The identification and conservation of unclassed forests have become increasingly important in environmental and conservation efforts.
• Policies and regulations, such as the Forest (Conservation) Act and various state-specific forest policies, aim to address the protection and sustainable management of these forests.
• However, challenges such as incomplete data, lack of verification, and inadequate regulatory oversight pose obstacles to effectively safeguarding unclassed forests and ensuring their long-term ecological integrity.

3. Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA) 2023

The Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA) 2023 brings significant changes to the legal protection of unclassed forests, as established by the landmark T.N. Godavarman Thirumalpad (1996) case. Under this amendment, unclassed forests, also known as deemed forests, face the risk of losing their protection, potentially leading to their diversion for non-forest purposes. The amendment mandates the preparation of State Expert Committee (SEC) reports to identify these forests, which fall outside of notified forest areas.

Key Provisions of the FCAA

• The FCAA broadens the scope of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, to include all categories of forests, regardless of ownership or notification status. This encompasses forests defined by their dictionary meaning, along with unclassed forests.
• With the FCAA in effect, any diversion of unclassed forests for non-forest purposes necessitates approval from the Central government. This measure aims to regulate and oversee the utilization of unclassed forests, ensuring their conservation and sustainable management.
• Unclassed forests may be owned by various entities, including government bodies such as forests, revenue departments, and railways, as well as communities and private individuals. Despite their ownership diversity, unclassed forests share the characteristic of not being officially notified as protected forest areas.

4. Identification Status of Unclassed Forests

The identification of unclassed forests, mandated by the Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA) 2023, has been a subject of uncertainty and scrutiny since the landmark T.N. Godavarman Thirumalpad judgment in 1996. Recent developments shed light on the efforts and challenges surrounding this crucial task.

Challenges in Identification Process

• Despite assertions by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to a Joint Parliamentary Committee that State Expert Committees (SECs) had identified unclassed forests, the actual status remained ambiguous. An RTI application revealed that the MoEFCC did not possess the required reports, casting doubt on the progress of identification.
• Seven States and Union Territories, including Goa, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, reportedly did not establish SECs. This lack of institutional framework hindered the identification process in these regions.
• Many States cited the short duration provided by the Supreme Court and the voluminous nature of the task as reasons for their inability to conduct physical surveys and demarcate unclassed forest lands within the stipulated time frame.

Developments in Identification Efforts

• The MoEFCC has recently uploaded SEC reports on its website, offering transparency regarding the progress of identification efforts across states.
• However, the uploaded reports paint a concerning picture, as many states have not provided verifiable data on the identification, status, and location of unclassed forests. Only 17 out of 23 states have submitted reports aligned with the directives of the Court.

5. Analysis and Concerns of SEC Reports

The State Expert Committee (SEC) reports, aimed at identifying unclassed forests as per the Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA) 2023, reveal several critical insights and challenges

Reported Findings

• Only nine States have provided information on the extent of unclassed forests, while most states and Union Territories (UTs) have focused on detailing various types of forest areas under government ownership.
• The majority of States and UTs have not specified the geographic locations of forests in their reports. Any geographical information provided pertains mainly to reserve or protected forests, which is redundant as it is already available with Forest Departments.
• SEC reports question the accuracy of forest area assessments by the Forest Survey of India. For instance, Gujarat's SEC report indicates unclassed forests covering 192.24 sq. km, contrasting sharply with the Forest Survey's estimate of 4,577 sq. km (1995-1999). Such discrepancies raise concerns about the reliability of forest area data.

Challenges and Implications

• The treatment of SEC reports without on-ground verification raises concerns about the potential destruction of forests that should have been identified, demarcated, and protected nearly three decades ago. The absence of baseline data from 1996-1997 further complicates efforts to assess the extent of forest loss over time.
• Instances such as Kerala's SEC report omitting ecologically fragile areas like the Pallivasal unreserve in Munnar highlight the risk of overlooking critical habitats, potentially exacerbating environmental vulnerabilities, as witnessed during events like the devastating 2018 floods.

6. Potential Effects of Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA)

The enactment of the Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment (FCAA) is likely to have significant repercussions on India's forests and ecological landscape.

• The potential loss of unclassed forests, as highlighted by the SEC reports, is a matter of concern across all States. This loss could lead to adverse ecological consequences, including habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, and disruption of ecosystem services.
• The hurried compilation of SEC reports using incomplete and unverified data suggests a lack of thoroughness in the identification process. This raises questions about the reliability and accuracy of the information presented to the Supreme Court.
• The failure to fully implement the directives of the T.N. Godavarman Thirumalpad judgment represents a missed opportunity to align with the Indian Forest Policy's goals of achieving specific forest cover targets. This failure undermines the conservation and sustainable management of India's forest resources.
• The promulgation of the FCAA without adequate examination of the SEC reports reflects a lack of diligence on the part of the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC). This oversight could have serious implications for India's ecosystems and ecological security.

Call for Accountability and Remedial Action

• Those responsible for the oversight and implementation of forest conservation measures, including the preparation of SEC reports, need to be held accountable for any shortcomings or negligence in fulfilling their obligations.
• The national government must take prompt and decisive action to address the deficiencies in the identification, retrieval, and protection of forest areas, as mandated by the 1996 Supreme Court judgment. This may involve revisiting the identification process, enhancing data collection methods, and strengthening conservation efforts to safeguard India's forests for future generations.

PARADOX OF THRIFT 

PLASTIC WASTE

 

 

1. Context

Plastic waste is everywhere, from the peak of Mount Everest to the floor of the Pacific Ocean, inside the bodies of animals and birds, and in human blood and breast milk. 

 

2. What is Plastic Waste?

 

• Plastic waste refers to any discarded or abandoned plastic material that is no longer useful or needed. It encompasses a wide range of items made from plastic, including packaging materials, bottles, containers, wrappers, bags, utensils, and various other disposable products.
• Plastic waste can be generated at various stages of production, distribution, consumption, and disposal.
• Plastic waste poses significant environmental challenges due to its durability, persistence, and widespread use.
• Unlike organic materials, plastic takes a long time to decompose naturally, leading to accumulation in landfills, water bodies, and ecosystems. Improper disposal of plastic waste can result in pollution, habitat destruction, harm to wildlife, and negative impacts on human health.
• Efforts to address plastic waste include recycling, waste reduction strategies, alternative materials development, and policy interventions such as plastic bans or taxes. Recycling plastic waste can help mitigate its environmental impact by diverting it from landfills and reducing the demand for virgin plastic production.
• However, challenges such as low recycling rates, limited infrastructure, and contamination issues need to be addressed to improve the effectiveness of plastic waste management efforts

3. What are the different types of plastic waste?

 

Plastic waste can be categorized into various types based on their chemical composition, characteristics, and intended use.

Some of the common types of plastic waste include:

• Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE): PET is commonly used in the production of beverage bottles, food packaging, and synthetic fibers. It is lightweight, transparent, and has good barrier properties against moisture and gases.

• High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE): HDPE is a versatile plastic used in the manufacturing of bottles for milk, detergent, shampoo, and other household products, as well as plastic bags, pipes, and containers. It is known for its high strength, resistance to chemicals, and durability.

• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is used in a wide range of applications, including construction materials (pipes, window frames), packaging, electrical insulation, and medical devices. It is characterized by its rigidity, durability, and resistance to abrasion and weathering.

• Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): LDPE is commonly used in flexible packaging materials such as plastic bags, shrink wraps, and films. It is also used in the production of squeeze bottles, tubing, and wire insulation. LDPE is known for its flexibility, toughness, and moisture resistance.

• Polypropylene (PP): PP is used in various applications, including packaging (bottle caps, food containers), textiles, automotive parts, and medical devices. It is valued for its high melting point, chemical resistance, and lightweight properties.

• Polystyrene (PS): PS is used in the production of disposable food containers, packaging materials, insulation, and disposable cutlery. It can exist in both rigid (e.g., foam cups, packaging) and expandable (e.g., foam packaging) forms.

• Other Plastics: This category includes plastics that do not fall into the above categories, such as polycarbonate (PC), acrylic (PMMA), and polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG). These plastics are used in various applications, including automotive parts, electronics, and consumer goods

4. Plastic and Climate 

• Since the 1950s, there has been a significant surge in global plastic production. Starting from a mere 2 million tonnes in 1950, it has escalated to over 450 million tonnes by 2019. Projections indicate a doubling of this production by 2050 and a tripling by 2060 if measures are not taken to curb it.
• As per a study released in 2023 by The Lancet, approximately 400 million tonnes of plastic waste is generated annually, with expectations of a 62% increase between 2024 and 2050.
• A considerable portion of this plastic waste finds its way into the environment, particularly into rivers and oceans, where it undergoes fragmentation into smaller particles known as microplastics or nanoplastics. These particles contain over 16,000 chemicals capable of causing harm to ecosystems and organisms, including humans.
• Furthermore, plastic production and disposal contribute to climate change. According to a report from the OECD, plastics were responsible for emitting 1.8 billion tonnes of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in 2019, accounting for 3.4% of global emissions.
• While the details of the treaty are yet to be finalized, experts suggest that it may extend beyond merely imposing caps on plastic production in UN member states. The treaty could potentially outline guidelines on how wealthier nations can assist poorer ones in meeting their plastic reduction targets.
• However, negotiations for the treaty have been highly contentious thus far. Since the inaugural round of talks in Uruguay in November 2022, oil-producing nations such as Saudi Arabia, Russia, and Iran have opposed plastic production caps and have employed various delay tactics, such as procedural disputes, to disrupt constructive dialogues

5. Why is a global plastics treaty needed?

 

A global plastics treaty is needed for several compelling reasons:

 

• Plastic pollution has become a global environmental crisis. Plastic waste contaminates land, water bodies, and ecosystems, leading to habitat destruction, wildlife entanglement, and ingestion. A treaty can provide a framework for coordinated international action to address plastic pollution and protect the environment
• Plastic pollution not only harms the environment but also poses risks to human health. Microplastics, tiny plastic particles resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic items, have been found in food, water, and even the air we breathe.
• These particles can contain toxic chemicals and pollutants, which may pose health risks when ingested or inhaled. A treaty can help regulate plastic production and disposal to safeguard public health
• The production and disposal of plastics contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Plastic manufacturing processes release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while plastic waste in landfills emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
• By addressing plastic production, consumption, and disposal, a global treaty can help mitigate climate change and promote sustainable development
• Plastic pollution knows no borders and can travel long distances through ocean currents and atmospheric transport.
• Efforts to address plastic pollution must therefore be coordinated at the international level to effectively combat this global problem. A global plastics treaty can facilitate cooperation among countries to implement measures for waste management, pollution prevention, and plastic reduction
• Plastics are made from non-renewable fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas. As global demand for plastics continues to rise, there is growing concern about the depletion of finite resources and the environmental impact of extractive industries.
• A treaty can promote resource conservation and the transition to more sustainable alternatives through measures such as recycling, reuse, and the promotion of biodegradable materials

6. What is the Paris Agreement?

 

The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted in December 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, France. It represents a landmark global effort to address climate change by committing countries to undertake actions to limit global warming and its impacts.

Key features of the Paris Agreement include:

 

• Mitigation Goals: The agreement sets a long-term goal to limit the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius (°C) above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. Countries are required to submit nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country determines its own contribution to the global effort to combat climate change based on its national circumstances, capabilities, and priorities. NDCs may include targets for reducing emissions, increasing renewable energy use, enhancing carbon sinks, and implementing adaptation measures.

• Transparency and Accountability: The Paris Agreement includes provisions for transparency and accountability to ensure that countries are fulfilling their commitments. Countries are required to regularly report on their emissions and progress in implementing their NDCs, and to participate in a global stocktake every five years to assess collective progress towards the agreement's goals.

• Adaptation and Support for Developing Countries: The agreement recognizes the importance of adaptation to the impacts of climate change, particularly for vulnerable countries and communities. It calls for increased support for adaptation efforts, including financial assistance, technology transfer, and capacity-building, especially for developing countries.

• Finance and Technology Transfer: The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of providing financial resources and technology transfer to support developing countries in their climate action efforts. Developed countries are expected to contribute financial resources to help developing countries transition to low-carbon and climate-resilient development pathways.

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance, General issues on the Environment For Mains:  GS-II, GS-III, Environment, environmental pollution and degradation, Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In India, ‘extend producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 (b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999 (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 (d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011 Answer (c) The concept of "extended producer responsibility" (EPR) was introduced as an important feature in the (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 in India. These rules were established to address the growing concern of electronic waste (e-waste) management and handling in the country

Source: Indianexpress

CURRENCY DEPRECIATION

 

 

1. Context

Between April-end 2014 and now – roughly the time the Narendra Modi government has been in office – the rupee has depreciated by 27.6% against the US dollar, from Rs 60.34 to Rs 83.38.

 

2. What is Currency depreciation?

 

Currency depreciation refers to the decrease in the value of a country's currency in relation to other currencies in the foreign exchange market. It means that the purchasing power of the currency decreases compared to other currencies, leading to higher prices for imported goods and services.

Currency depreciation can occur due to various factors, including:

• Supply and demand: If the demand for a currency decreases relative to its supply in the foreign exchange market, its value may depreciate. Factors such as changes in trade balances, capital flows, and interest rates can influence supply and demand dynamics.

• Inflation differentials: If a country experiences higher inflation rates compared to its trading partners, its currency may depreciate as the purchasing power of the currency decreases relative to other currencies.

• Economic performance: Weak economic indicators, such as low growth rates, high unemployment, or large fiscal deficits, can lead to a loss of confidence in a country's currency, causing it to depreciate.

• Political instability: Political uncertainty or instability in a country can undermine investor confidence and lead to capital outflows, putting pressure on the currency to depreciate.

• Speculative activities: Speculators may engage in trading activities that anticipate currency depreciation, exacerbating downward pressure on the currency's value

3. What do you understand by Rupee depreciation?

 

Rupee depreciation refers specifically to the decline in the value of the Indian rupee (INR) in relation to other major currencies, such as the US dollar (USD), euro (EUR), or British pound (GBP), in the foreign exchange market. It signifies that the purchasing power of the Indian rupee decreases relative to other currencies, resulting in higher prices for imported goods and services.

Rupee depreciation can occur due to a variety of factors, including:

• Trade imbalances: Persistent trade deficits, where imports exceed exports, can put downward pressure on the rupee as more foreign currency is required to pay for imports.

• Capital outflows: If foreign investors sell Indian assets or withdraw investments from the country, it can lead to a decrease in demand for the rupee, causing its value to depreciate.

• Interest rate differentials: Higher interest rates in other countries can attract foreign investors away from Indian assets, leading to a decrease in demand for the rupee and its depreciation.

• Inflation differentials: Higher inflation rates in India compared to other countries can erode the purchasing power of the rupee, leading to depreciation.

• Global economic factors: Events such as changes in global oil prices, geopolitical tensions, or shifts in investor sentiment towards emerging markets can also impact the value of the rupee

4. Appreciation vs Depreciation of Currency-Compare and Contrast

 

Subject	Appreciation of Currency	Depreciation of Currency
Definition	Increase in the value of a currency relative to other currencies.	Decrease in the value of a currency relative to other currencies.
Effect on Imports	Imports become cheaper.	Imports become more expensive.
Effect on Exports	Exports become more expensive for foreign buyers.	Exports become cheaper for foreign buyers.
Trade Balance	May lead to a trade deficit as exports become less competitive.	May lead to a trade surplus as exports become more competitive.
Inflation	May contribute to deflationary pressures as imported goods become cheaper.	May contribute to inflationary pressures as imported goods become more expensive.
Interest Rates	May lead to lower interest rates as a stronger currency reduces inflationary pressures.	May lead to higher interest rates as a weaker currency increases inflationary pressures.
Foreign Investment	May discourage foreign investment as returns become less attractive.	May encourage foreign investment as returns become more attractive.
Domestic Production	May discourage domestic production as exports become less competitive.	May encourage domestic production as imports become more expensive.
External Debt Burden	May increase the cost of servicing external debt denominated in foreign currencies.	May decrease the cost of servicing external debt denominated in foreign currencies.
Purchasing Power	Increases the purchasing power of domestic consumers and businesses.	Decreases the purchasing power of domestic consumers and businesses.
Government Policy Response	Central banks may intervene to prevent excessive appreciation through measures such as foreign exchange interventions.	Central banks may intervene to stabilize the currency or support exports through measures such as interest rate adjustments or currency interventions.

 

5. What is the difference between depreciation and devaluation?

 

Subject	Depreciation	Devaluation
Definition	Decrease in the value of a currency in the foreign exchange market due to market forces.	Deliberate and official decrease in the value of a country's currency by the government or central bank.
Cause	Market forces such as changes in supply and demand, economic conditions, or investor sentiment.	Implemented by the government or central bank to address economic challenges or achieve specific objectives.
Effect	Affects the exchange rate of a currency relative to other currencies, making imports more expensive and exports more competitive.	Affects the exchange rate of a currency in the foreign exchange market, making imports more expensive and exports more competitive.
Economic Implications	Can influence trade balances, inflation, interest rates, and economic growth.	Can influence trade balances, inflation, interest rates, and economic growth.
Policy Response	Central banks may intervene to stabilize the currency or address excessive depreciation through measures such as foreign exchange interventions or monetary policy adjustments.	Deliberate policy action undertaken by the government or central bank, which may involve announcing changes in the official exchange rate, adjusting monetary policy measures, or implementing structural reforms.

 

6.Way Forward

 

Between April-end 2014 and now – roughly the time the Narendra Modi government has been in office – the rupee has depreciated by 27.6% against the US dollar, from Rs 60.34 to Rs 83.38. That’s marginally higher than the 26.5% from April-end 2004 to April-end 2014: The rupee fell from 44.37 to 60.34 to the dollar during that period when the previous Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) was in power

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: GS-III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which one of the following is not the most likely measure the Government/RBI takes to stop the slide of the Indian rupee? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Curbing imports of non-essential goods and promoting exports (b) Encouraging Indian borrowers to issue rupee-denominated Masala Bonds (c) Easing conditions relating to external commercial borrowing (d) Following an expansionary monetary policy Answer (d) The option that is not the most likely measure the Government/RBI takes to stop the slide of the Indian rupee is: (d) Following an expansionary monetary policy An expansionary monetary policy involves increasing the money supply and lowering interest rates to stimulate economic growth. While this policy may indirectly influence the value of the rupee, it is not typically used as a direct measure to stop the slide of the currency. In fact, an expansionary monetary policy may potentially contribute to further depreciation of the rupee if it leads to capital outflows or inflationary pressures. The other options, (a), (b), and (c), are more directly related to measures that the Government/RBI may take to address currency depreciation, such as curbing imports, promoting exports, encouraging rupee-denominated bonds, and easing conditions for external commercial borrowing

 

Source: Indianexpress