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Hydrogen as a Fuel and Pegasus Spyware and its significance for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI), Centre-State relation, Indian Monsoon important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for May 01, 2025 |
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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on May 02, 2025
Daily Insights and Initiatives for UPSC Exam Notes: Comprehensive explanations and high-quality material provided regularly for students
For Preliminary Examination: Hydrogen as a Fuel, Biofuel
For Mains Examination: GS III - Environment &Ecology
Context:
Hydrogen is seen as the fuel of the future — one that would decarbonise world economy and stop global warming. If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well. And it’s most likely abundant in India, too.
Read about:
How is natural hydrogen extracted?
Biofuel
Key takeaways:
How is natural hydrogen obtained?
Currently, most hydrogen is produced from natural gas using processes that are both energy-intensive and environmentally damaging. Although green hydrogen—generated using renewable energy—is a cleaner option, its high cost and the massive renewable infrastructure it demands make it difficult to scale.
Natural hydrogen exists freely within geological formations and is created through processes such as serpentinisation (when water interacts with iron-rich rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive elements in rocks, and the decomposition of organic material deep underground
Historical background of its discovery and extraction
- In 1987, during a routine attempt to drill for water in Bourakébougou, Mali, an unusual incident occurred. After drilling down 108 meters without finding water, a member of the drilling crew lit a cigarette, triggering a sudden burst of flame.
- This mysterious fire burned with a blue glow during the day and a golden hue at night, and took several weeks to extinguish. The well remained abandoned for years until businessman and politician Aliou Diallo acquired the exploration rights in 2007.
- By 2012, Chapman Petroleum analyzed the site and identified the gas as being 98% pure hydrogen. This was a significant discovery since hydrogen was not previously believed to exist in such concentrations underground.
- Although naturally occurring hydrogen has been noted for decades through gas seepages, volcanic emissions, and mining incidents, it was long considered a scientific anomaly. Most geologists believed that hydrogen’s small molecular size and high reactivity would prevent it from forming substantial underground reservoirs.
- Today, geologists are beginning to identify environments across the globe—especially tectonically active mountain regions like the Himalayas, Alps, and Pyrenees—as favorable zones for natural hydrogen production.
- The presence of helium alongside hydrogen in certain areas supports the theory that processes like radiolysis contribute to its formation. Additionally, hydrogen found in coal mines suggests the involvement of buried organic matter. What was once an obscure area of geology is now an emerging field with vast energy implications
Current reserves and prospects
- Due to limited exploration, the full extent of global natural hydrogen reserves remains unclear. However, recent findings point to significant potential. Unlike oil and gas, natural hydrogen lacks a mature exploration framework, though research and efforts in this direction are expanding.
- In India, while the sector remains largely unexplored, the geological potential appears promising. Suitable conditions exist in ultramafic and mafic rock formations, volcanic-sedimentary belts in cratons like Dharwar and Singhbhum, ophiolite complexes in the Himalayas and Andaman, sedimentary basins like Vindhyan and Gondwana, and geothermal areas with hot springs.
- International discoveries have underscored the resource's scale. Countries including Australia, the U.S., France, Spain, Colombia, Albania, South Korea, and Canada have recorded hundreds of natural hydrogen seeps. According to a 2022 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) model, global reserves could meet global hydrogen needs for millennia.
- For instance, in France’s Lorraine region, researchers identified natural hydrogen in abandoned mines in 2023, with further reserves found in nearby Moselle in 2025. Combined, these are estimated to contain 92 million tonnes of hydrogen—valued at around $92 billion and equating to about half of global annual hydrogen production.
- While precise global figures are uncertain, USGS estimates suggest that underground hydrogen could amount to tens of trillions of metric tonnes.
- If even 2% of this is commercially viable, it would be twice the energy content of all known natural gas reserves, sufficient to meet projected global hydrogen demand for nearly two centuries. Still, economic viability remains a question, especially if deposits are widely dispersed
Industry response
- The potential for vast, untapped reserves of clean hydrogen has led to a surge in exploration activity. By the end of 2023, around 40 companies—including many start-ups—were engaged in searching for natural hydrogen globally, up from only 10 in 2020, according to Rystad Energy.
- Exploration is taking place in nations such as Australia, the U.S., Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada. Some producers claim they can extract hydrogen for as little as $1 per kilogram—cheaper than both green and fossil-fuel-based hydrogen.
- Reflecting growing interest, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists has established its first committee on natural hydrogen, and the USGS has begun mapping potential zones for its production in the United States
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Answer (A)
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Pegasus, also referred to as the Q Suite, is a surveillance software developed by former members of Israeli intelligence and is marketed by NSO Group, also known as Q Cyber Technologies, as a cutting-edge cyber intelligence tool. It enables law enforcement and intelligence agencies to covertly and remotely extract information from nearly all mobile devices.
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Prior to 2018, NSO Group’s customers mainly used deceptive messages sent via SMS or WhatsApp to trick users into clicking malicious links. This method, called Enhanced Social Engineering Message (ESEM) in Pegasus’ marketing materials, directed users to a server that would detect the phone’s operating system and install the appropriate exploit for remote access.
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In October 2019, Amnesty International released a report highlighting the use of network injections, a method allowing Pegasus to be installed on devices without any user interaction—a zero-click attack. One technique involves sending a covert push message that triggers spyware installation silently, with the user remaining completely unaware and unable to stop the process.
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Pegasus has shown the ability to infect almost any mobile device, including Apple’s iPhones, by exploiting the iMessage app and the Apple Push Notification Service (APNs). The spyware is capable of mimicking legitimate apps and transmitting itself through Apple’s servers via push notifications.
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Regarding the Justice R.V. Raveendran committee, which investigated claims of Pegasus being used for surveillance on journalists, activists, and politicians, Justice Surya Kant emphasized that any report implicating national security would remain confidential.
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He added that individuals concerned about being surveilled may be informed personally but insisted the findings cannot be made public for general debate, as this could compromise sensitive national interests. Justice Kant made these remarks while leading a bench with Justice N. Kotiswar Singh, hearing multiple petitions filed in response to the Pegasus revelations from 2021.
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Senior Advocate Dinesh Dwivedi, representing some petitioners, argued that even if surveillance wasn’t proven in a specific case, the key concern remains whether the government possesses and uses Pegasus.
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To this, Justice Kant responded that merely possessing such spyware isn't illegal; the core issue lies in how and against whom it is deployed. He stated, "It’s not a simple matter—you can’t jeopardize national security."
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Senior Advocate Kapil Sibal, also representing petitioners, referenced a US District Court ruling on NSO Group’s alleged hacking of WhatsApp accounts using Pegasus. Sibal claimed that the court identified India as one of the affected nations, citing WhatsApp’s own statements.
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He also mentioned the formation of the R.V. Raveendran Committee by the Supreme Court in October 2021 to investigate potential violations of citizens’ fundamental rights due to alleged widespread surveillance.
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In its August 25, 2022 order, the Supreme Court acknowledged that while the committee discovered malware in five phones, there was no conclusive proof that Pegasus was involved. The court further noted that the central government had not cooperated with the investigation
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Answer (4)
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Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are responsible for trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect, which leads to a rise in global surface temperatures. The most prevalent GHGs include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Additionally, synthetic gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) also fall under this category.
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The term Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI) refers to the quantity of GHGs emitted for every unit of product produced — for instance, the emissions released during the manufacture of one tonne of cement, aluminium, or paper.
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According to the draft Rules, GEI is defined as the emission of GHGs measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCOâ‚‚e) per unit of output or product. This unit — tCOâ‚‚e — standardizes various greenhouse gases based on their relative warming potential compared to COâ‚‚.
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The Rules outline baseline emissions for the financial year 2023–24, and establish emission reduction targets for 2025–26 and 2026–27. These are part of India's strategy to operationalize its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023.
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Specific reduction benchmarks and intensity targets have been introduced for energy-intensive industries such as aluminium, chlor-alkali, cement, and pulp and paper. Over a two-year period starting in 2025–26, these regulations will apply to 282 industrial units, including 13 aluminium facilities, 186 cement plants, 53 pulp and paper mills, and 30 chlor-alkali units.
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Prominent companies subject to these targets include Vedanta, Hindalco, Bharat Aluminium, JSW Cement, Ultratech, Nalco, JK Cement, Dalmia Cement, Shree Cement, Grasim Industries, and JK Paper. The Rules also prescribe the compliance framework and impose penalties for non-compliance
(a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol
(b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota
(c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission
(d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations Environment Programme
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Answer (d)
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Rajamannar Committee: In 1969, the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, C. N. Annadurai, established the Centre-State Relations Inquiry Committee under the chairmanship of P. V. Rajamannar, a former Chief Justice of the Madras High Court. The committee, comprising three members, was tasked with examining the Constitution and proposing measures to guarantee maximum autonomy for states in administrative, legislative, and judicial matters, while maintaining the overall unity and integrity of the nation.
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Sarkaria Commission: Formed in 1983, the Sarkaria Commission was mandated to evaluate the historical development of Centre-state relations, identify recurring challenges, and suggest solutions. The Commission's report noted that continued friction and dissatisfaction in this relationship could jeopardize the effective functioning of the federal structure and pose a threat to national cohesion.
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Punchhi Commission: The UPA government constituted the Punchhi Commission in 2007 to examine emerging challenges in Centre-state relations, considering the political and economic shifts since the Sarkaria Commission's review over two decades earlier. Led by former Chief Justice of India Madan Mohan Punchhi, the five-member body was assigned to assess and recommend necessary adjustments.
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Federal Structure in the Constitution: Article 1 of the Indian Constitution declares that "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States." However, India's political system is quasi-federal in nature, characterized by a division of legislative responsibilities into the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. Executive powers are aligned with legislative authority in this setup.
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Central Dominance in Federal Structure: The Constitution grants the Centre greater authority to ensure national integrity. All powers not specifically assigned to any of the three lists (residuary powers) lie with the Union government. In case of conflict between Central and state laws on matters in the Concurrent List, Central legislation takes precedence. Furthermore, Parliament has the authority to modify state boundaries with a simple majority. The role of the Governor also serves to reinforce Central influence over states.
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Federal Tensions: India's linguistic and regional diversity, along with the creation of states based on language, has frequently highlighted tensions in the federal structure. States have often alleged partiality by the Centre, especially when Article 356 has been invoked to dismiss elected governments and impose President's Rule. These tensions escalated with the emergence of regional political parties, particularly when the ruling parties at the Centre and in the states were ideologically opposed
(a) First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966)
(b) Rajamannar Committee (1969)
(c) Sarkaria Commission (1983)
(d) National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000)
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Answer (c)
The Sarkaria Commission (1983), which was established to examine Centre-State relations, recommended that the Governor should be a person from outside the State, with a detached attitude and not actively involved in politics in the recent past. This was to ensure impartiality and to avoid friction between the state government and the Centre
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- The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has projected ‘above normal’ rainfall — estimated at 105% of the long-period average (LPA) — for the upcoming June to September southwest monsoon season.
- Earlier this month, the IMD noted that key climatic influences on the monsoon, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), are currently aligned in a manner that supports favourable monsoon activity.
- The southwest monsoon, which lasts four months, is crucial for nearly 70% of India’s total annual rainfall.
- This seasonal rainfall is vital not only for agriculture and food security but also for replenishing water sources like reservoirs and aquifers. Therefore, accurate monsoon forecasting plays a critical role in government planning and preparedness.
- The forecast issued on April 15 was IMD’s initial long-range projection for this year’s monsoon. A more updated assessment, or second-stage forecast, will be released in late May, shortly before the monsoon’s expected onset in Kerala. Long-range forecasts in meteorology can range from a month to up to two years in advance.
Historical Background
- Efforts to predict the monsoon began in 1877, shortly after the establishment of the IMD in 1875, led by British meteorologist Henry Francis Blanford. The devastating famine of 1876–78, which began due to crop failures in the Deccan, underscored the need for timely monsoon forecasting.
- The British administration recognized that the monsoon’s reliability was directly tied to agriculture, river systems, and maritime activities — all essential for revenue generation.
- According to Ramesh Subramanian of Quinnipiac University, the success or failure of the monsoon significantly influenced economic and environmental conditions across colonial India.
Post-Independence Forecasting Models
- India continued using Walker’s statistical model for monsoon prediction until 1987, despite its limited accuracy. According to researchers M Rajeevan and D R Pattanaik, forecasts during 1932–1987 often deviated significantly — errors averaged 12.33 cm in peninsular India and 9.9 cm in the northwest.
- The limitations arose because many of Walker’s originally effective indicators had weakened or lost relevance. Attempts to adjust the model failed to deliver consistent improvements in accuracy.
The Gowariker Model
- In 1988, the IMD adopted a power regression model developed by Vasant R Gowariker’s team, which relied on 16 atmospheric variables as predictors. Initially, the forecasts applied only to overall national rainfall, with regional predictions phased out but later reintroduced in 1999 with revised geographic boundaries.
- However, even this model faced challenges. By 2000, four of the 16 predictors were found to be ineffective and had to be replaced, as highlighted in a 2019 study by Suryachandra A Rao and others. Moreover, forecast errors often exceeded acceptable thresholds, especially in years like 1994, 1997, and 1999.
- After failing to foresee the 2002 drought — the worst since 1987 — confidence in the model declined significantly.
Introduction of New Models
Subsequently, the IMD set out to refine its forecasting system by focusing on:
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Identifying predictors with a strong physical connection to monsoon behaviour.
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Optimizing both the number of predictors and the period for training the model, as described in a 2019 research paper
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Answer (C)
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Does the planet K2-18b show signs of life?
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology
Context:
On April 16, an international research team uploaded a paper in which it reported that the distant exoplanet K2-18b may be habitable. The claim was met with cautious excitement by astronomers. While finding places in the universe that could harbour life is a vital quest in the field, experts — including the team that made the finding — are cautious because many similar claims in the past have had to be retracted after closer inspection.
Read about:
K2-18b Planet
What is an exoplanet?
Key takeaways:
- K2-18b is an intriguing exoplanet—meaning a planet that exists outside our solar system—located about 124 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Leo. It orbits a red dwarf star known as K2-18 and was first discovered in 2015 by NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope.
- What makes K2-18b particularly fascinating to scientists is that it lies within its star's habitable zone, the region where conditions might be suitable for liquid water to exist on a planet’s surface—a key ingredient for life as we know it.
- K2-18b is significantly larger than Earth, with a radius more than five times wider and a mass nearly nine times greater. These proportions place it between Earth and Neptune in terms of size and composition, leading researchers to suggest it could be a “Hycean world”—a type of planet that might be covered in a deep global ocean beneath a thick, hydrogen-rich atmosphere. This classification remains unconfirmed, but it has opened up new possibilities in the search for potentially habitable planets.
- Over the years, K2-18b has been the subject of detailed atmospheric studies. In 2019, the Hubble Space Telescope detected signs of water vapour in its atmosphere, a major milestone in exoplanet research.
- Later, in 2023, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) identified the presence of other important molecules such as methane and carbon dioxide. These compounds are considered potential biosignatures—indicators that could suggest biological processes.
- There were even tentative findings of dimethyl sulphide (DMS), a molecule on Earth primarily associated with life, although this detection remains under debate.
- Despite the excitement, scientists caution that many of these findings are still open to interpretation. The presence of certain molecules doesn’t guarantee life, as they could also be produced through non-biological chemical reactions.
- Moreover, some recent studies have challenged the idea that K2-18b is truly habitable, proposing instead that it might be a gas-rich mini-Neptune with harsh, life-prohibiting conditions.
- Nevertheless, K2-18b remains a compelling subject in the ongoing exploration of exoplanets, offering valuable insights into how planets beyond our solar system might look, behave, and—possibly—host life
Follow Up Question
1.Which of the following statements regarding exoplanets is/are correct?
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Exoplanets are planets that orbit stars outside our solar system.
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The first exoplanet was discovered using the Hubble Space Telescope.
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K2-18b is an exoplanet that shows potential signs of habitability.
Select the correct answer using the code below:
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1 and 3 only
D) 1, 2, and 3
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Answer (C)
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Why are ASHA workers protesting in Kerala?
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS II - Governance
Context:
For over two months now, a section of Kerala’s 26,125-strong community of Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) have been on a day-night agitation on the streets demanding better remuneration and retirement benefits. While the agitation gained much attention and was also raised in Parliament, the issues raised by the ASHAs remain unresolved.
Read about:
Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs)
National Rural Health Mission
Key takeaways:
Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA)
An Accredited Social Health Activist, or ASHA, is a trained female health worker from the local community who serves as a key link between the rural population and the public healthcare system.- The initiative was launched under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) by the Government of India, aiming to raise health awareness in rural areas and improve the reach and accountability of government health services.
- ASHAs are selected from within the communities they serve and are responsible to those very communities. They are trained to bridge the gap between people and the healthcare infrastructure, guiding them to utilize available health services effectively. The ASHA program has been implemented across all Indian States and Union Territories, except Goa.
- States are expected to appoint at least one ASHA per 1,000 individuals. These workers receive foundational training in public health and are provided with a basic drug kit, enabling them to offer primary healthcare at the grassroots level.
- Their selection is conducted through a comprehensive process involving community groups, self-help groups, Anganwadi centers, block and district health officials, the village health committee, and the Gram Sabha.
ASHAs serve as frontline caregivers in their communities. They facilitate access to health services, medicines, and sanitation facilities, especially for marginalized groups. Their responsibilities also include raising health awareness, promoting hygienic practices, advocating for women's health, and encouraging healthier lifestyle choices and disease prevention behaviors.
Eligibility and Selection Criteria
In rural settings, an ASHA must be a woman residing in the same village, preferably married, widowed, or divorced, and ideally between 25 to 45 years old. She should have at least a basic level of literacy, preferably up to the 10th standard, though completion of 8th grade is generally acceptable.
In urban areas, ASHAs are chosen from within slum communities or other identified vulnerable areas. They must belong to these communities and demonstrate strong communication and leadership skills. States are permitted to relax educational or population-based eligibility norms depending on local needs and challenges during recruitment
Compensation and Incentives
Although ASHAs are technically considered voluntary workers, they are compensated for specific activities such as attending training sessions, participating in regular review meetings, and performing other assigned tasks.- Their average monthly earnings range from ₹2,000 to ₹7,000, varying by state. Additionally, they are entitled to performance-based incentives under various national health schemes.
- ASHAs can also earn supplementary income through the social marketing of health-related products such as contraceptives and sanitary napkins. The structure of their work is intended to be flexible so that it doesn’t interfere with their primary livelihood, while still ensuring fair compensation for the time and effort they dedicate to healthcare responsibilities
1.With reference to the National Rural Health Mission, which of the following are the jobs of ‘ASHA’, a trained community health worker? (2012)
- Accompanying women to the health facility for antenatal care checkup
- Using pregnancy test kits for early detection of pregnancy
- Providing information on nutrition and immunisation.
- Conducting the delivery of baby
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
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Answer (a)
Under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), the Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) is trained to perform the following tasks:
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