• When a Bill is passed by the Legislature of a State, it does not automatically become a law. The final step in the legislative process is the Governor’s assent, which is mandated under Article 200 of the Indian Constitution. The Governor acts as a constitutional authority here, ensuring that the proposed law is consistent with the Constitution and the larger national interest.
• Once a Bill is presented to the Governor, he has several options. He may give his assent, in which case the Bill becomes law. He may withhold his assent, which means the Bill fails.
• Alternatively, he can reserve the Bill for the consideration of the President of India, particularly if it conflicts with the provisions of the Constitution, affects the larger interests of the country, or deals with matters where Parliament has overriding powers.
• The Governor may also return the Bill (if it is not a Money Bill) to the State Legislature for reconsideration, suggesting changes or asking the Legislature to think again. If the Bill is passed again by the Legislature, with or without modifications, the Governor is bound to give his assent.
• The power to reserve a Bill for the President’s consideration is a significant check. For example, if a State Legislature passes a Bill that potentially affects subjects like trade, commerce, or taxation beyond the State’s boundaries, the Governor may reserve it. Similarly, if a Bill appears to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the Union, it must be reserved.
• However, the Governor’s role is not that of an independent lawmaker. He is part of the legislative process, but not part of the legislature itself. In practice, the Governor is expected to act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers of the State. Yet, in certain cases, especially where reservation for the President is concerned, the Governor has discretion.
• This system ensures a balance. On one hand, States have the autonomy to legislate on subjects in the State List. On the other, the Governor’s assent, and the possibility of the President’s scrutiny, act as safeguards against laws that may be unconstitutional, arbitrary, or against the larger public interest

Executive Powers

• The Governor is the chief executive head of the State.

• All executive actions of the State are taken in his name.

• He appoints the Chief Minister and, on the Chief Minister’s advice, the other members of the Council of Ministers.

• He appoints key state officials such as the Advocate General, the State Election Commissioner, and the members of the State Public Service Commission (though their removal is done by the President).

• He acts as the Chancellor of State Universities in many States, giving him influence in higher education

An earthquake is the sudden shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface caused by the release of energy stored in the earth’s crust. This energy is usually released when rocks deep underground break or slip along faults due to accumulated stress, sending out seismic waves that make the ground vibrate.

How it Happens

• The earth’s crust is made of huge slabs of rock called tectonic plates, which are constantly moving slowly.

• When these plates grind against, collide, or move past each other, stress builds up at their boundaries or within faults.

• Once the stress exceeds the strength of rocks, they break suddenly, releasing energy in the form of seismic waves.

• A bond yield represents the return an investor earns from holding a bond. In simple terms, it is the income generated relative to the capital invested in the bond. Bond yields differ from bond prices, and the two share an inverse relationship—when prices fall, yields rise, and vice versa.
• At issuance, a bond’s yield typically equals its coupon rate. Yields can be calculated in various ways, such as the coupon yield and current yield, while more comprehensive measures include yield to maturity (YTM) and others.
• Recently, bond yields have increased, influenced primarily by two factors: the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) hawkish stance on inflation and concerns over higher government borrowing linked to proposed tax reforms.
• Normally, bond yields tend to decrease when interest rates are lowered, but this time the market has responded differently. Rising yields generally indicate falling bond prices, reflecting investor selling activity.
• According to Care Ratings, the yield curve has become steeper, particularly at the long end, signaling expectations of higher borrowing costs in the future. Their report notes that unless significant external shocks—such as persistent US tariffs or domestic growth disruptions—occur, the RBI is unlikely to cut rates in the near term. This could necessitate additional policy support through measures beyond simple rate reductions.
• Another factor driving up yields is the central government’s draft proposal to rationalise GST slabs. The current four-tier structure—5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%—may be consolidated into two main rates: 5% for essentials and 18% for most other items, with a 40% rate for “sin” or demerit goods.
• While this reform aims to simplify taxation, the market fears a short-term revenue shortfall. Estimates suggest GST collections could drop by ₹50,000–60,000 crore if implemented by Diwali, raising concerns about potential fiscal slippage and a higher-than-targeted fiscal deficit.
• Investors worry that the government may need to borrow more to cover this shortfall. Increased bond issuance would likely lower bond prices and push yields higher—a trend already observed in recent trading.
• To stabilise the market, analysts expect the government and RBI to adjust borrowing strategies. For example, the government may shift borrowing towards short- and medium-term maturities, while the RBI could intervene through Open Market Operations (OMO) or Operation Twist.
• Through OMOs, the RBI buys long-term bonds to reduce market supply and curb yields. In Operation Twist, it simultaneously purchases long-term bonds and sells short-term bonds, aiming to ease pressure on long-term yields while maintaining overall market stability

• Open Market Operations (OMO) are one of the primary tools used by a central bank, such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), to manage liquidity in the economy and influence interest rates. Essentially, OMOs involve the buying and selling of government securities in the open market by the central bank.
• When the RBI buys government bonds from banks or other financial institutions, it injects money into the banking system. This increases the amount of funds available for banks to lend, which can lower short-term interest rates and stimulate borrowing and investment in the economy.
• Conversely, when the RBI sells government bonds, it withdraws money from the system, reducing liquidity and potentially increasing interest rates. This helps control inflation by making borrowing more expensive and slowing down excessive spending.
• OMO is considered a flexible and market-based tool because it allows the central bank to influence liquidity without changing the policy interest rate directly.
• For example, if the economy faces a sudden liquidity shortage, the RBI can buy securities to ensure banks have sufficient funds. Similarly, if inflation is rising too quickly, the RBI can sell securities to mop up excess money from the system.
• In practice, OMOs also affect bond yields. When the RBI purchases long-term government bonds, it increases demand for those bonds, raising their prices and lowering yields.
• This can stabilize the financial markets and reduce borrowing costs for the government. OMOs are therefore not only a tool for monetary policy but also a mechanism to maintain stability in the bond market

A rising Yamuna and the cost of unplanned growth in Delhi-NCR

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS I - Geography, Urban Planning

Context:

On September 2, heavy monsoon rains and record releases from upstream barrages pushed the Yamuna across the danger mark, bringing the Delhi-NCR region to a virtual standstill. Roads turned into rivers, underpasses and flyovers were submerged, technical snags and overcrowding strained metro services, and hundreds of flights were delayed as visibility and airport access deteriorated

Read about:

Flash floods

Wetlands 

Key takeaways:

• On September 2, heavy monsoon rainfall combined with record releases from upstream barrages caused the Yamuna River to cross its danger level, paralyzing the Delhi-NCR region. Streets were submerged, underpasses and flyovers flooded, metro services struggled due to overcrowding and technical issues, and hundreds of flights were delayed as airport operations were disrupted.
• Thousands of residents from low-lying areas were evacuated, relief camps were set up, and schools and offices switched to online classes or remote work. While the immediate chaos highlighted emergency management challenges, it also exposed structural vulnerabilities in a rapidly growing city grappling with climate change and decades of unplanned urban development.
• Experts have long warned that climate change is intensifying the South Asian monsoon, producing shorter, heavier rainfall events followed by longer dry periods. When extreme rainfall hits cities whose drainage systems, natural buffers, and urban planning were designed for milder conditions, flooding becomes inevitable.
• In Delhi, the scale of disruption is largely due to urban planning failures: floodplains historically absorbing Yamuna’s seasonal surges have been encroached upon, wetlands and natural drainage channels have been filled or fragmented, and much of the city is covered with impermeable surfaces.
• Drainage networks lag behind urban expansion, and stormwater systems built for past rainfall patterns cannot handle current volumes. Large releases from barrages like Hathnikund, Wazirabad, and Okhla exacerbated the flooding, though poor land-use planning remains the root cause.
• The IPCC’s AR6 report warns that as global temperatures rise, extreme precipitation events will become more frequent and intense, heightening flood risks in densely populated cities like Delhi. To prevent recurring crises, policymakers must adopt integrated and urgent measures across land use, infrastructure, governance, and finance.
• This includes enforcing no-build zones along floodplains and river buffers, protecting remaining wetlands, and requiring developers to ensure zero net loss of flood retention capacity.
• Nature-based solutions—such as urban wetlands, riparian buffers, floodplain parks, green roofs, rain gardens, and permeable pavements—should be restored and expanded to slow runoff rather than channel it directly into drains.
• Stormwater and drainage systems must be redesigned for future extremes, with greater conveyance, storage capacity, detention ponds, and backup-powered pumps and control systems.
• Integrated water management across jurisdictions is crucial, involving coordinated barrage operations, real-time data sharing, and metropolitan river basin governance. Early warning systems should be strengthened with denser meteorological networks, community alerts, pre-positioned relief infrastructure, trained local response teams, and regular disaster drills.
• Finally, these interventions require predictable financing, including climate-proofed budgets, resilience bonds, and incentives for developers to adopt sustainable infrastructure, supported by strong institutional mandates.
• With political commitment and comprehensive planning, Delhi-NCR can reduce flood risks, protect residents, and build a resilient urban environment capable of coping with future climate extremes

Follow Up Question

How to redirect migrant potential toward sustainable urban growth?

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS I - Society

Context:

Rapid urban growth in India is not only reshaping cities but also accelerating large-scale migration. As per the 2011 Census, India had approximately 450 million internal migrants. In this context, COVID-19 pandemic brought to the fore the complex realities of internal migration and underlined the urgent need to address structural gaps in urban governance

Read about:

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

International Organisation for Migration (2024)

Key takeaways:

• With the large-scale movement of people towards cities, ensuring that urban areas are equitable and inclusive for migrants has become a pressing policy concern. Given the magnitude of internal migration in India, the International Labour Organization (2020) has emphasised that migrant-inclusive urban governance is no longer optional but a critical necessity.
• Creating migration-responsive cities is also vital for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 11, which aims for cities that are safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable.
• According to the World Economic Forum and the International Organization for Migration (2024), well-managed migration can serve as a powerful driver of inclusive growth—harnessing migrant potential for sustainable urban development while reducing distress-driven migration.
• Several strategic measures can support this objective, drawing from best practices across India: conducting migration data collection and enumeration, tracking internal migrants, ensuring portability of entitlements, educating migrant children, promoting participatory urban planning, developing climate-resilient infrastructure, and providing affordable housing.
• Migration data and enumeration: One key reason migrants are often excluded from social protection is the lack of documentation and reliable data. Many states lack mechanisms to monitor internal migration, leaving migrants invisible in policy frameworks.
• Kerala’s Kerala Migration Survey (KMS), launched in 1998 by the Centre for Development Studies, provides disaggregated data on internal and international migration. The KMS has proven invaluable for planning inclusive labour policies and managing crises, such as during the COVID-19 lockdown.
• Tracking migrants: Monitoring seasonal and internal migration enables targeted urban planning in areas such as housing, healthcare, education, and sanitation. For instance, Odisha uses panchayat-level databases, Chhattisgarh maintains a ‘Palayan Panji’, and Maharashtra’s Maha-MTS system tracks migrating women and children to ensure access to welfare services. Gujarat implemented a Migration Card system to maintain educational continuity for children of migrant families.
• Portability of entitlements: Ensuring that benefits such as ration cards, healthcare, education, and social security move with migrants is essential. The One Nation, One Ration Card (ONORC) initiative allows migrants to access subsidised food anywhere in India. Chhattisgarh’s Food and Nutritional Security Act (2012) similarly provides food support to migrants and vulnerable groups.
• Education for migrant children: Many migrant children face disruptions in schooling, often violating the Right to Education Act (2009). The National Education Policy (2020) calls for innovative learning solutions for these children. Kerala’s Roshni Project (2017) and the subsequent Jyothi Initiative (2025) have successfully enrolled migrant children in schools and anganwadis while ensuring welfare and healthcare support.
• Participatory urban planning: Current initiatives largely focus on resident populations. For true inclusivity, municipal councils and city-level governance structures must actively involve migrants, informal workers, and urban poor in planning and decision-making. This participatory approach promotes transparency, accountability, and social cohesion.
• Climate-resilient infrastructure: Migrants, especially those in informal settlements or construction sites, face heightened climate risks. The NDMA (2025) advisory formally recognised migrants as a vulnerable group in Heat Action Plans. Measures like Chennai’s air-conditioned rest stations provide safe cooling spaces, drinking water, and rest facilities for workers during extreme heat.
• By integrating these measures—data collection, entitlement portability, education, participatory planning, and climate-resilient infrastructure—Indian cities can become truly inclusive and resilient for internal migrants

Affordable Housing

• Many vulnerable migrants and their families are forced to live in slums or informal settlements due to high housing costs, unaffordable rents, or limited access to formal housing schemes. This highlights the importance of safeguarding the ‘right to shelter’ for migrants in destination cities by providing options such as affordable rental housing, hostels, dormitory-style accommodations, and housing close to industrial areas.
• The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recognised migrant housing vulnerabilities through initiatives like the Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (2020). Several states have also introduced migrant-centric policies, including the Maharashtra State Housing Policy (2025), the Rajasthan Township Policy (2024), and Kerala’s ‘Apana Ghar’ scheme.
• Despite these efforts, housing support for migrants remains fragmented and unevenly implemented.
• To address this, cities need a coordinated approach combining urban planning with skill development, legal aid, accessible healthcare, and awareness programs promoting safe migration.
• Such integrated strategies would not only improve the living conditions and productivity of migrants but also make urban centres more inclusive, democratic, and resilient

Hydrogen trains for a truly green and sustainable form of transportation

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Science and technology

Context:

Recently, Indian Railways successfully tested the first hydrogen-powered coach or driving power car, marking a key milestone in the national transporter’s quest to build India’s first hydrogen-powered train. 

Read about:

HFC (Hydrogen Fuel Cell) technology

Green Hydrogen

Key takeaways:

• Hydrogen trains are a new generation of electric trains that carry their own onboard power source, unlike conventional electric trains that rely on overhead wires. They operate using Hydrogen Fuel Cell (HFC) technology, which produces electricity through an electrochemical reaction between compressed hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen, emitting only water vapor as a byproduct. This makes hydrogen trains a zero-emission transport solution at the point of use.
• Electricity generated by the fuel cells is stored in batteries, providing extra power during acceleration and uphill travel.
• These trains also incorporate regenerative braking, which captures kinetic energy from braking and converts it back into electricity to recharge onboard batteries. When powered by green hydrogen—produced through electrolysis using renewable energy—hydrogen trains become a truly sustainable and environmentally friendly mode of transport.

Energy Security and Operational Advantages

• Hydrail offers several benefits: it eliminates smoke emissions, reduces air and noise pollution, and can operate on both electrified and non-electrified tracks, offering flexibility where overhead wires are impractical.
• Hydrogen trains can be refueled in 20–25 minutes, faster than battery-electric alternatives, making them particularly suitable for routes where conventional electrification is challenging.
• For India, which aims to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, hydrogen trains provide a pathway to decarbonize Indian Railways, a major fossil fuel consumer. While initial investments are high, hydrail can be cost-effective on non-electrified routes by avoiding expensive electrification infrastructure. It also reduces reliance on imported diesel, enhancing energy security and supporting the balance of payments.

Challenges: Logistics, Infrastructure, and Cost

• Despite their promise, hydrogen trains face challenges: high production costs, lack of a comprehensive hydrogen production, storage, and distribution network, and significant refueling infrastructure requirements.
• Safety is another concern, given hydrogen’s flammability, necessitating strict protocols and personnel training.
• The process of producing green hydrogen (via electrolysis) and converting it back to electricity results in lower overall efficiency compared to conventional overhead electric trains. Moreover, most hydrogen currently produced in India is grey hydrogen from fossil fuels, limiting true decarbonization.

Hydrail and Atmanirbhar Bharat

• Hydrogen trains represent a significant step toward sustainable and decarbonized transport, especially in remote or hilly regions. Their deployment aligns with the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) and initiatives like Hydrogen for Heritage, aiming to build a robust domestic hydrogen ecosystem.
• Achieving these goals requires leveraging India’s renewable energy capacity, investing in infrastructure for storage and refueling, and enhancing fuel cell technology through research and development.
• Strategic deployment of hydrogen trains, combined with a strong domestic hydrogen production ecosystem, can strengthen India’s energy security, economic resilience, and position in global green hydrogen innovation. In doing so, hydrail can become a cornerstone of India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat vision for a cleaner, greener, and more resilient future

Follow Up Question