INTEGRATED MAINS AND PRELIMS MENTORSHIP (IMPM) 2025 Daily KEY
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Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council and Quantum Computer and its significance for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), Registrar General of India (RGI) , Charge-coupled device (CCD) important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for September 04, 2025 |
During its 56th meeting, the GST Council approved a major restructuring of the tax system, moving towards a primarily two-rate structure, as proposed by the Central government, according to Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman. Under the revised framework, the main GST rates will be 5% and 18%, alongside a 40% “special rate” for sin goods such as tobacco products and luxury items like large cars, yachts, and helicopters. Most changes are set to take effect from September 22, while tobacco and related products will transition to the new structure on a date to be announced by the Finance Minister.
The government estimates that the net fiscal impact of these rate reductions, based on 2023-24 consumption patterns, would be around ₹48,000 crore. Officials noted that actual outcomes would depend on current consumption trends, with expectations of a buoyancy effect and improved compliance.
Key changes under the new GST structure include:
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Essential food items like namkeens, sauces, pasta, instant noodles, chocolates, coffee, and butter will move to the 5% rate.
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Twelve bio-pesticides, bio-menthol, and labour-intensive products such as handicrafts, marble, travertine and granite blocks, and intermediate leather goods will also drop from 12% to 5%.
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Cement will see a reduction from 28% to 18%.
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A total of 33 essential medicines will be exempted (0% GST), while spectacles for vision correction will move from 28% to 5%.
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Electric vehicles remain at a 5% GST rate.
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The inverted duty structure in the manmade textiles sector will be corrected, with GST on manmade fibre reduced from 18% to 5% and manmade yarn from 12% to 5%. Similarly, fertilizer inputs such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and ammonia will see rates drop from 18% to 5%.
The special 40% rate will apply to certain sin and super-luxury goods, including pan masala, cigarettes, gutka, chewable tobacco, zarda, unmanufactured tobacco, and bidi, as well as aerated and caffeinated drinks, mid-to-large cars, motorcycles with engines over 350 cc, personal helicopters and airplanes, and yachts or private vessels
Goods and Services Tax (GST):
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Definition:
GST is a comprehensive indirect tax levied on the manufacture, sale, and consumption of goods and services at a national level, replacing multiple central and state taxes to create a single unified tax system across India. -
Legal Basis:
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Governed by the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016.
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Implemented through the CGST Act (Central GST), SGST Act (State GST), and IGST Act (Integrated GST).
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Structure:
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CGST: Collected by the Centre on intra-state sales.
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SGST/UTGST: Collected by states/UTs on intra-state sales.
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IGST: Collected by the Centre on inter-state transactions and imports.
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Key Features:
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Dual GST system: Levy by both Centre and State.
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Destination-based tax: Revenue accrues to the state where goods/services are consumed.
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Input Tax Credit (ITC): Avoids tax-on-tax by allowing credit for taxes paid on inputs.
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Multiple slabs: Currently 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, 28%, and special rates for sin/super-luxury goods.
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Answer (D)
A. It is a destination tax ✅
B. It benefits producing states more âŒ
C. It benefits consuming states more ✅
D. It is a progressive taxation âŒ
E. It is an umbrella tax to improve ease of doing business ✅
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How Majorana particles promise to shield quantum computers from noise?
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science and Technology
Context:
In the race to make quantum computers practical, scientists have found themselves drawn to some of the strangest ideas in physics. Few are stranger — but also more promising — than the notion of using particles that are their own antiparticles to store and manipulate information. This is the concept behind Majorana particles.
Read about:
What is a Quantum Computer?
What is a Cubit?
Key takeaways:
- In the 1930s, Italian physicist Ettore Majorana proposed a particle that is unique in being identical to its own antiparticle. Unlike most matter and antimatter, which annihilate when combined, a Majorana particle is a perfect mirror of itself—reversing all charges and properties yields the same particle. Electrons and protons do not exhibit this property.
- For decades, Majoranas existed only in theory. High-energy physicists searched for them in cosmic rays and accelerators without success. More recently, condensed matter physicists discovered that certain quasiparticles in engineered materials behave mathematically like Majoranas.
- These quasiparticles are collective excitations, not fundamental particles, and can emerge in systems like superconducting nanowires cooled near absolute zero under magnetic fields.
- The discovery of Majorana-like modes in tabletop experiments sparked excitement in the quantum computing community. Their appeal lies not merely in their rarity but in their potential to address one of the field’s biggest challenges: maintaining stable quantum information
The Challenge of Qubit Stability
- Quantum computers rely on qubits, which can exist in a superposition of 0 and 1. This, combined with entanglement, gives quantum computers their power.
- However, qubits are extremely sensitive—interaction with the environment, such as stray heat or light, can collapse their superposition, erasing information.
- This phenomenon, known as decoherence, limits qubit lifetimes to microseconds or milliseconds in current superconducting chips.
- To counter this, engineers use quantum error correction, encoding one logical qubit into many physical qubits to detect and fix errors. This approach, while effective, requires hundreds or thousands of physical qubits per logical qubit, creating a scaling bottleneck
Majoranas as a Solution
- Majoranas offer a fundamentally different approach. Instead of storing a qubit in a single fragile object, the information can be shared between two spatially separated Majorana modes. In certain superconductors, electrons can form bound pairs, and under specific conditions, the quantum state of one electron can effectively split into two halves, each behaving like a Majorana mode.
- These halves can be positioned far apart within the same device, collectively defining a qubit. Any local disturbance affecting one half cannot destroy the information; both halves must be disrupted simultaneously, which is highly unlikely. This nonlocal encoding acts like splitting a secret between two locations: possessing only one part reveals nothing.
Braiding and Topological Protection
- Majorana modes are a type of non-Abelian anyon, which behave differently from ordinary quantum particles. When two identical particles like electrons or photons are swapped, their overall quantum state either changes sign (fermions) or remains unchanged (bosons).
- Non-Abelian anyons, however, undergo a fundamental transformation when exchanged, and the order of swaps matters, creating distinct final states depending on the sequence.
- This property enables topological quantum computation. By moving Majorana modes around each other—a process called braiding—one can manipulate the qubit’s state. The outcome depends only on the braid’s topology, not on the precise motion.
- This makes computations intrinsically robust against timing errors, position variations, or environmental noise, as nature effectively “rounds off” imperfections, much like a knot retains its structure regardless of twists until untied
Follow Up Question
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Answer (B)
The term “qubit” refers to the quantum analogue of a classical bit used in quantum computing, representing a superposition of 0 and 1
A qubit (quantum bit) is the basic unit of quantum information, analogous to a classical bit in traditional computing. Unlike classical bits that can only be 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously
Key Properties:
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- The Indian Constitution embodies the principle of equality, yet it simultaneously recognizes that formal equality alone is often insufficient to address the historical and social disadvantages faced by certain groups. Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution are central to the system of reservations, designed to promote social justice and equal opportunity.
- Article 15 prohibits discrimination by the State on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. However, it also empowers the State to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes (SEBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- This means that while all citizens are guaranteed equality in theory, the State can adopt affirmative measures, such as reservations in educational institutions, to ensure that historically marginalized communities are not left behind.
- The intention is to provide these communities with the resources and opportunities necessary to bridge long-standing inequalities.
- Article 16 extends this framework to public employment, guaranteeing equality of opportunity in matters of recruitment and promotion. Similar to Article 15, Article 16 allows the State to make special provisions for backward classes, SCs, and STs, ensuring that these groups have access to jobs in government services.
- The article reflects the recognition that equality in opportunity does not automatically translate into equality in outcomes, especially when communities have faced systemic deprivation over generations.
- The Supreme Court of India has interpreted these provisions in various landmark cases. In Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962), the Court observed that reservations must be “within reasonable limits” and should be balanced with the interests of the community as a whole, establishing a 50% ceiling on reservations for backward classes as a measure of formal equality.
- This ceiling was reaffirmed in the Indra Sawhney case (1992), which also introduced the principle of excluding the “creamy layer” among Other Backward Classes (OBCs) from the benefits of reservation to ensure that opportunities reach the truly disadvantaged.
- The Constitution also provides for flexibility and responsiveness. While the 50% cap has generally guided policy, the inclusion of the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) with a 10% reservation, as upheld by the Supreme Court in Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022), demonstrates the system’s ability to adapt to contemporary socio-economic realities.
- Unlike OBCs, SCs and STs do not have a “creamy layer” exclusion, though debates continue regarding its possible implementation to ensure equitable distribution of benefits within these communities.
- Beyond mere numbers, the constitutional framework emphasizes substantive equality, which seeks to level the playing field for historically disadvantaged groups. The intention is not merely to provide a temporary advantage but to create conditions in which these communities can participate fully and equally in education, employment, and public life over successive generations.
- This has led to proposals for sub-categorization within OBCs and for more nuanced mechanisms to ensure that the most marginalized members of SC and ST communities benefit from affirmative action.
- In essence, the constitutional provisions on reservation represent a delicate balance between formal equality, which treats everyone the same, and substantive equality, which recognizes historical disadvantages and aims to correct them. They reflect India’s commitment to social justice, seeking to integrate historically marginalized groups into the mainstream while ensuring that the fundamental right to equality is respected
- Article 15 of the Indian Constitution primarily deals with prohibition of discrimination by the State. It ensures that the State cannot discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
- However, Article 15 also recognizes that treating everyone identically does not always ensure real equality, especially for historically disadvantaged groups. Therefore, it empowers the State to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- This includes measures like reservations in educational institutions—schools, colleges, and universities—to help marginalized communities gain access to opportunities that were historically denied to them.
- In short, Article 15 strikes a balance between formal equality and affirmative action, allowing the State to correct historical injustices while upholding the broader principle of equality.
- Article 16 complements Article 15 but focuses on public employment. It guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of employment or appointment to any office under the State. Like Article 15, Article 16 permits the State to make special provisions for backward classes, SCs, and STs in recruitment and promotion within government services.
- The rationale is that mere formal equality in employment procedures is insufficient to address the structural disadvantages these communities face. By enabling reservations and other affirmative measures, Article 16 ensures that marginalized groups can gain meaningful access to government jobs, which historically provided social mobility and economic security.
- Together, Articles 15 and 16 embody the constitutional vision of substantive equality, which goes beyond treating everyone the same.
- They recognize that historical and social disadvantages require proactive measures, including reservations in education and public employment, to enable marginalized groups to participate fully in social, economic, and political life.
- Over the years, these Articles have been interpreted by the Supreme Court in landmark cases such as Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962), State of Kerala v. N.M. Thomas (1975), and Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992), which clarified limits like the 50% ceiling for OBC reservations and the principle of creamy layer exclusion, while also affirming the validity of reservations for promoting social justice
1.Consider the following statements with reference to the census in India: (UPSC-CDS(II) – 2024)
1. The first All India Census was attempted in 1872.
2. From 1881, decennial censuses became a regular feature.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
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Answer (c)
Statement 1: The first All India Census was attempted in 1872. ✅
Statement 2: From 1881, decennial censuses became a regular feature. ✅
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- The Registrar General of India (RGI) heads the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (ORG&CCI), which functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- The office is primarily responsible for conducting the decennial population census, which is the largest administrative and statistical exercise in the country, as well as for maintaining vital statistics like births and deaths.
- The RGI’s responsibilities extend beyond the Census. Under the Census Act, 1948, the RGI oversees the systematic collection, compilation, and dissemination of population data across the country, including details on demography, religion, caste, literacy, language, migration, and economic activity. This data forms the backbone of policy-making and socio-economic planning at both central and state levels.
- In addition, under the Registration of Births and Deaths (RBD) Act, 1969, the RGI also serves as the Registrar General, coordinating the Civil Registration System (CRS) across all States and Union Territories to ensure mandatory registration of births and deaths. This helps in generating accurate vital statistics such as birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, and maternal mortality rate.
- Another important function is overseeing the National Population Register (NPR), prepared under the Citizenship Rules, 2003, which involves collecting data on all usual residents of India.
- The RGI also undertakes special surveys like the Mother Tongue Survey and implements the Sample Registration System (SRS) for periodic monitoring of vital events at the state level.
- The Registrar General of India is thus a pivotal authority for both demographic data and vital statistics, ensuring that India has accurate and up-to-date population information for planning, governance, and policy formulation
- The Census in India is the largest administrative and statistical exercise in the country and one of the biggest in the world. Its history dates back to the 19th century, evolving gradually into a systematic decennial process.
- The first attempt at an All-India Census was made in 1872 under British administration. This census was non-synchronous, meaning the enumeration was carried out at different times across various regions, and it did not cover all territories under British control. Its main purpose was to get a broad idea of the population size rather than detailed demographic information.
- The first synchronous census, where enumeration was carried out simultaneously across the country, took place in 1881 under the supervision of W.C. Plowden. This marked a significant step towards modern and organized population data collection.
- The 1881 Census aimed not only to count the population but also to classify it based on demographic, social, and economic characteristics, laying the foundation for systematic statistical analysis in India.
- From 1881 onwards, the Census became a regular decennial exercise, occurring every ten years. Each subsequent census improved upon methodology, coverage, and detail, providing comprehensive insights into population size, distribution, literacy, occupation, religion, language, and other socio-economic indicators.
- After India’s Independence in 1947, the Census continued as a key instrument for governance and planning. The Census Act of 1948 formalized the process, giving legal backing to the decennial exercise and defining the duties of census officers.
- The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (ORG&CCI), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, was established in 1949 to oversee the census and related statistical activities.
- The Census has continuously evolved to incorporate technological advances. For example, the upcoming Census 2027 is planned to be the first digital Census in India, enabling data collection through mobile applications and providing options for self-enumeration.
- It will also include caste enumeration and real-time monitoring using dedicated platforms.
- Through its long history, the Census of India has not only provided a snapshot of the country’s demographic profile but also served as a critical tool for policy-making, socio-economic planning, and the implementation of welfare schemes, including those related to education, health, and reservations
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Answer (a)
Statement 1: Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times. ✅
Statement 2: Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled. âŒ
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- A Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) works on the principle of the photoelectric effect, in which incoming light generates pairs of electrons and holes within a semiconductor material.
- When photons strike the semiconductor beneath each pixel, they release electrons, forming a packet of charge that is directly proportional to the intensity of the light falling on that pixel.
- Each pixel acts like a tiny capacitor, storing these electrons, and the amount of charge accumulated reflects the brightness of the light received.
- To read this information, a sequence of voltages is applied to electrodes above the pixels, which transfers the stored charges step by step from one pixel to the next—similar to passing buckets of water along a chain.
- This method of moving charge gives the CCD its name. Eventually, the charges reach a readout register, where they are converted into voltage signals. These signals are then amplified, digitised, and processed into a complete image.
- Since their invention in 1969, Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) have transformed multiple fields by enhancing the way light can be recorded as digital data. In everyday life, they replaced traditional photographic film with electronic sensors, paving the way for the rise of digital cameras.
- This shift allowed people to instantly preview, edit, and store images on digital media, reshaping both personal photography and modern communication. CCDs also became central to CCTV systems, delivering clear video feeds that support security in banks, shopping centres, hospitals, and other public spaces.
- In the field of medicine, CCDs play a crucial role in diagnostic imaging technologies such as X-rays, CT scans, and endoscopy. Their high sensitivity and resolution make it possible to generate sharper images, enabling doctors to detect problems more precisely and design better treatments.
- Similarly, in scientific research, CCDs are essential in instruments like microscopes, spectrometers, and particle detectors, where their precision allows researchers to examine cells, materials, and fundamental physical processes in fine detail.
- Perhaps one of their most important contributions is in astronomy, where CCDs have become the preferred technology for telescopic imaging. Unlike older photographic plates, CCDs can detect extremely faint light sources with much greater sensitivity.
- This advancement has revolutionised space observation, helping astronomers explore distant galaxies, identify exoplanets, and investigate a wide range of cosmic phenomena, thereby deepening humanity’s understanding of the universe.
1.With reference to a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD), consider the following statements:
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It works on the principle of the photoelectric effect, where incoming light generates electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor.
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CCDs are primarily used in digital imaging devices like telescopes, cameras, and medical scanners.
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Each pixel in a CCD stores charge in proportion to the light intensity it receives.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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Answer (d)
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