INTEGRATED MAINS AND PRELIMS MENTORSHIP (IMPM) 2025 Daily KEY
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Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 and Flash Floods and its significance for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like AI and Machine Learning (ML), National Landslide Risk Management Strategy important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for September 17, 2025
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A flash flood is one of the most dangerous natural disasters because it strikes suddenly, with little to no warning. It is usually triggered when a large volume of water is released in a very short time, overwhelming the capacity of rivers, streams, or drainage systems. Unlike seasonal floods, which rise gradually, flash floods are rapid and violent, often leaving very little time for people to escape.
Causes of Flash Floods:
- The primary cause is intense or prolonged rainfall that saturates the soil and overwhelms natural or artificial drainage. In hilly or mountainous regions, steep slopes accelerate the flow of water, making valleys and low-lying areas especially vulnerable.
- Urbanisation further aggravates the problem, as concrete surfaces prevent rainwater from seeping into the ground, increasing surface runoff.
- Sudden events such as the bursting of a dam, glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), or landslides that block rivers and later release water abruptly also trigger flash floods.
- Climate change has intensified the frequency and severity of extreme rainfall events, making flash floods more common in many parts of the world.
Effects of Flash Floods:
- The consequences are devastating because of their sudden onset and force. Flash floods wash away roads, bridges, and houses, disrupting infrastructure and essential services. Agricultural land is often submerged, leading to crop losses and soil erosion.
- Human settlements are directly threatened, with lives lost to drowning or being swept away by water carrying debris, rocks, and mud.
- Economically, the destruction leads to high costs of rehabilitation and rebuilding. Socially, displaced communities face long-term challenges such as loss of livelihood, trauma, and health risks due to waterborne diseases.
- Environmentally, flash floods can alter river courses, destroy vegetation, and affect local ecosystems
- A cloudburst is an extreme weather phenomenon in which a massive amount of rainfall occurs over a very small area within a short period of time, usually less than an hour.
- The rainfall is so intense that the ground and drainage systems cannot absorb or carry away the water quickly enough, leading to sudden floods.
- Technically, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines a cloudburst as rainfall of 10 cm (100 mm) or more within one hour over a region of about 10 km².
- Cloudbursts generally happen in mountainous or hilly regions, such as the Himalayas, where warm, moisture-laden air rapidly ascends due to the terrain.
- When this air mass cools suddenly, it condenses into dense clouds, and if the condensation rate exceeds the cloud’s ability to release water gradually, the accumulated moisture falls violently in a short span of time.
- The effects of a cloudburst can be devastating. They often trigger flash floods, landslides, and large-scale destruction of property, agriculture, and infrastructure.
- Because they occur suddenly and in localized areas, predicting them with precision is very difficult, making them one of the most dangerous forms of extreme rainfall.
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Answer (C)
✅ Correct Answer: C. 2 and 3 only |
Human Involvement in AI Development
- Machines alone cannot interpret the meaning of raw data. This is where data annotators step in—by tagging images, audio, video, and text with relevant information that serves as the foundation for training Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) models.
- For instance, a large language model (LLM) would not be able to identify the colour “yellow” unless the dataset explicitly labelled it. Similarly, autonomous vehicles rely on labelled video inputs to distinguish between pedestrians and traffic signs. The accuracy of AI output largely depends on the quality of these labelled datasets, which in turn requires significant human effort.
- Data annotators are particularly important in training LLMs like ChatGPT or Gemini. Their training process involves three stages: self-supervised learning, supervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
- While the first stage involves machines scanning large Internet datasets, annotators are crucial in the latter two, where they fine-tune responses and provide feedback. This human input helps correct mistakes, remove harmful prompts, and improve accuracy over time.
- A significant portion of this work is outsourced by big tech companies in the U.S. to workers in countries such as Kenya, India, Pakistan, China, and the Philippines. Despite being essential, the annotating jobs are poorly paid and involve long, demanding hours.
- Data labelling is generally divided into two types: tasks requiring little or no subject knowledge, and specialised tasks demanding expertise. Many companies have been criticised for hiring non-specialists for complex work, such as labelling medical scans, which can result in serious errors in AI systems. Some firms have now begun employing professionals for highly technical datasets to reduce such risks
Hidden Human Effort in “Automated” Features
- Even technologies advertised as “fully automated” often depend on unseen human labour. For example, social media platforms filter sensitive content only because human moderators have already reviewed and labelled it as harmful.
- Unfortunately, these workers are constantly exposed to disturbing content—such as graphic violence or explicit material—which has been linked to severe psychological issues like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
- Likewise, AI-generated audio and video require real human input. Voice actors, dancers, and even children may be recorded so machines can learn human expressions, movements, and sounds.
- In 2024, Kenyan AI workers wrote to former U.S. President Joe Biden, exposing exploitative working conditions. They described being forced to annotate extremely graphic material—ranging from pornography to beheadings—for less than $2 an hour, all under tight deadlines. Many reported that when they protested against such treatment, they were dismissed, and their unions were broken up.
The Invisible Workforce
- Most AI workers operate through digital gig platforms and are often unaware of the actual companies behind the projects. To cut costs, tech companies outsource tasks through multiple layers of subcontractors.
- Workers are paid per “microtask” they complete and are constantly monitored. Missing output targets can lead to immediate dismissal. This fragmented system hides accountability and makes working conditions precarious.
- The rapid progress of AI, therefore, relies on these “ghost workers” whose contributions are invisible but vital. The lack of recognition and the informal nature of their employment allow exploitation to continue.
- To address this, stronger regulations are needed—not only to ensure transparency in digital content but also to safeguard fair pay, labour rights, and dignity for the workers who sustain AI systems
With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
3. Disease diagnosis
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
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Answer (b)
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Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ) are buffer areas notified by the Government of India around Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves). These zones act as transition spaces between areas of high protection (the core of protected areas) and human settlements. They are created under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to minimize the adverse impacts of human activities on fragile ecosystems.
The basic idea is that activities around protected areas can often threaten biodiversity, wildlife corridors, and ecological balance. By declaring an ESZ, the government regulates land use and development in such regions without completely prohibiting human presence. Typically, ESZs extend up to 10 km from the boundary of a protected area, though the extent can vary depending on ecological significance and local needs.
Why are ESZs created?
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To protect fragile ecosystems – They serve as “shock absorbers” by reducing the harmful effects of urbanization, mining, industries, and other high-impact activities near protected areas.
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To maintain ecological balance – They help conserve biodiversity, preserve wildlife corridors, and maintain ecosystem services like water security and soil fertility.
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To regulate human activities – Certain activities like agriculture, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, and eco-tourism are encouraged, while harmful activities such as mining, polluting industries, hydroelectric projects, and large-scale construction are either restricted or prohibited.
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To ensure sustainable development – ESZs aim to balance the conservation of biodiversity with the livelihood needs of local communities
National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (NLRMS)
The National Landslide Risk Management Strategy was prepared by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) to address the increasing frequency and intensity of landslides in India, especially in the Himalayas, Western Ghats, and Northeastern states.
Key Components:
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Hazard Mapping & Zonation – Scientific mapping of landslide-prone areas, creation of landslide hazard zonation maps, and development of an inventory of past landslides.
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Monitoring & Early Warning – Use of satellite imagery, drones, and real-time monitoring systems to predict landslide events.
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Prevention & Mitigation – Engineering measures (retaining walls, slope stabilization, drainage correction), afforestation, and controlled land use in vulnerable zones.
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Capacity Building & Awareness – Training local communities, engineers, and disaster managers in preparedness and response.
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Policy & Regulation – Integration of landslide risk management into urban planning, road construction, hydropower projects, and mining activities.
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Research & Development – Encouraging scientific studies on rainfall thresholds, soil movement, and climate change impacts
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030)
The Sendai Framework, adopted at the 3rd UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Japan (2015), is a global agreement to reduce disaster risks and enhance resilience. It replaced the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015).
Four Priorities for Action:
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Understanding disaster risk – Through risk assessments, scientific research, and awareness.
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Strengthening disaster risk governance – Clear policies, coordination between institutions, and stakeholder participation.
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Investing in disaster risk reduction – Allocating resources for resilient infrastructure, sustainable land use, and ecosystem protection.
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Enhancing disaster preparedness & “Build Back Better” – Better early warning systems, community preparedness, and resilient reconstruction after disasters.
Targets (7 Global Goals):
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Substantially reduce global disaster mortality.
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Reduce the number of affected people.
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Reduce direct economic losses.
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Reduce damage to critical infrastructure.
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Increase the number of national/local DRR strategies.
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Enhance international cooperation.
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Increase access to multi-hazard early warning systems
1.In which one among the following categories of protected areas in India are local people not allowed to collect and use the biomass? (UPSC CSE 2012)
(a) Biosphere Reserves
(b) National Parks
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention
(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries
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Answer (b)
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“Waqf by user” refers to a situation where a property, though not formally declared as waqf through a written deed or official notification, has been continuously used by the community for a religious, pious, or charitable purpose over a long period of time.
For example, if a piece of land has been used for generations as a graveyard, mosque, or community space for religious functions without any explicit waqf deed, it can still be recognized legally as waqf property. The underlying principle is that long-standing public use itself creates a presumption of waqf, even in the absence of formal dedication.
This concept is recognized under the Waqf Act, 1995 (and amendments), and has also been upheld in judicial interpretations in India
Purpose of Waqf Land
The idea of waqf comes from Islamic law, where property is permanently dedicated for religious, pious, or charitable purposes. The property is considered inalienable—meaning it cannot be sold, transferred, or inherited. Instead, its benefits are meant for the welfare of the community.
Main purposes include:
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Religious use – construction and maintenance of mosques, madrasas, graveyards, and dargahs.
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Charitable use – helping the poor, funding orphanages, hospitals, and schools.
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Community welfare – providing land for markets, water bodies, or other facilities that benefit society.
The Waqf Board in each state manages such lands to ensure they are used for their intended purposes and not misused or encroached upon.
Role and Function of the Waqf Council
The Central Waqf Council (CWC) is a statutory body established in 1964 under the Waqf Act, 1954 (later continued under the Waqf Act, 1995). It operates under the Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India.
Role and Functions:
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Advisory Role – Advises the Central Government on matters related to the working of State Waqf Boards and administration of waqf properties.
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Supervision and Guidance – Provides directions to State Waqf Boards to improve their performance in managing waqf properties.
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Protection of Waqf Properties – Monitors encroachment issues, illegal transfers, and misuse of waqf land.
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Development Work – Helps Boards in the development of waqf properties for income generation, which can be used for community welfare (education, health, housing for the poor, etc.).
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Capacity Building – Conducts training programs for officials and members of State Waqf Boards.
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Schemes and Grants – Frames and implements schemes for strengthening waqf institutions, often funded through government grants.
In short, the CWC acts as a supervisory and advisory body to ensure that waqf lands and assets are properly managed and used for the community’s religious, educational, and charitable needs.
Difference between Trusts and Waqf
| Aspect | Trust | Waqf |
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| Origin | Governed by the Indian Trusts Act, 1882 (secular law). | Based on Islamic law, governed by the Waqf Act, 1995. |
| Creation | Created by a trust deed; settlor specifies purpose and beneficiaries. | Created by permanent dedication of property for religious, pious, or charitable purposes in Islam. |
| Ownership | Property is transferred to the trustee for the benefit of beneficiaries. | Ownership is considered to vest in God/Allah; property becomes inalienable. |
| Purpose | Can be private (family benefit) or public (charitable). | Always meant for religious, charitable, or community welfare purposes. |
| Duration | Trust can be dissolved or terminated as per law. | Waqf is perpetual; once created, it cannot be revoked or sold. |
| Management | Managed by a trustee appointed under the trust deed. | Managed by a mutawalli (caretaker), under supervision of State Waqf Boards. |
- The Supreme Court upheld the removal of the concept of “waqf by user”, reasoning that if the legislature identified instances of its misuse, it was within its authority to strike down that provision.
- It directed the government to temporarily halt the rule under which only individuals who had practised Islam for at least five years could create a waqf. This stay will remain until state governments establish clear guidelines for determining compliance.
- However, the Court clarified that the provision itself could not automatically be labelled arbitrary or discriminatory.
- The bench recalled that even as far back as 1923, legislatures had observed that waqf endowments were at times used as a device to shield property from creditors and to circumvent legal obligations under the guise of religious dedication.
- On the issue of Muslim representation in waqf institutions, the Court ruled that under the 2025 Act, the Central Waqf Council (22 members) could not have more than four non-Muslims, and State Waqf Boards (11 members) could not have more than three.
- It further suggested that, wherever feasible, the Chief Executive Officer of the State Board—who also serves as its ex-officio secretary—should come from the Muslim community.
- The Court also refused to suspend the amendment abolishing “waqf by user”. Traditionally, this principle treated land continuously used for Muslim religious or charitable activities as waqf, even without registration.
- The 2025 amendment eliminated this category for future cases, restricting its recognition only to properties already registered as waqf.
- The Court observed that if the legislature, noting misuse and encroachment of public lands under this provision, decided to end it prospectively, such a step could not be considered prima facie arbitrary.
- With respect to the powers of the District Collector, the petitioners had challenged Section 3C of the amended Act, which authorised district authorities to investigate whether land claimed as waqf was actually government property.
- The contentious part was the clause stating that once an inquiry began, the land would instantly lose its waqf status—even before a final verdict.
- The Court stayed this specific clause, clarifying that the property would continue to be treated as waqf while the inquiry was ongoing.
- Another key argument concerned the inclusion of non-Muslims in waqf boards. Petitioners claimed that allowing a non-Muslim majority in these bodies violated the right of Muslims to manage their own religious institutions.
- The Centre countered that non-Muslim representation would remain limited. To remove doubts, the Court explicitly capped the number: no more than four non-Muslims in the Central Waqf Council and no more than three in State Boards.
- The controversial “five years of practising Islam” rule—which restricted the creation of waqf to those able to show continuous Islamic practice for five years—was also challenged.
- While agreeing to stay its operation, the Court added that the suspension would remain only until the government framed rules specifying how such practice could be assessed.
- On the matter of the Limitation Act, the earlier 1995 Waqf Act had exempted waqf claims from time limits when acting against encroachments. The 2025 law removed this exception, meaning waqf authorities now need to act within prescribed limitation periods. The Court refused to stay this change, noting that it corrects a discriminatory advantage that previously existed.
- Finally, the bench clarified that all these observations were preliminary, given in the context of deciding interim relief, and would not prevent parties from presenting fuller arguments on the validity of the amendments in the main hearings
- Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused academic support programme, generally introduced in schools, to help students consolidate their learning in the final stretch before examinations.
- Unlike regular classroom teaching, which spreads across the academic year, SIR is a short-term, concentrated effort designed to revisit key concepts, strengthen understanding, and improve performance.
- During SIR, students are often grouped based on their performance levels so that teachers can provide targeted support. For instance, those struggling with fundamentals receive remedial teaching, while average and advanced learners are given more practice to refine their skills.
- The sessions typically include repeated revision of important topics, solving past examination papers, mock tests, and doubt-clearing exercises. This ensures that students not only recall their lessons better but also develop confidence in applying their knowledge under exam conditions.
- The purpose of SIR is to bridge learning gaps, reinforce memory through repeated exposure, and provide individual attention where necessary. It is particularly valuable for board exam students or competitive exam aspirants, where scoring well can significantly impact their future academic or career opportunities
- The Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RPA, 1950) is one of the two key laws governing elections in India, the other being the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
- While the 1951 Act deals mainly with the conduct of elections and related offences, the 1950 Act primarily lays down the legal framework for the allocation of seats, delimitation of constituencies, and preparation of electoral rolls.
- Enacted soon after the adoption of the Constitution, the RPA 1950 gave practical effect to the constitutional provisions under Articles 81, 82, 170, 325, and 326. It defines how seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies are distributed among states and Union Territories, how these constituencies are demarcated, and how voters are registered.
- The Act empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) to supervise the preparation, revision, and correction of electoral rolls to ensure fair representation.
- It also specifies who is eligible to be registered as a voter: any citizen of India who is not less than 18 years of age on the qualifying date and is ordinarily resident in a constituency.
- At the same time, it disqualifies certain persons from being registered, such as those of unsound mind (declared by a competent court) or those disqualified for corrupt practices or offences related to elections. Importantly, the Act prohibits the inclusion of a person’s name in more than one constituency or multiple times in the same roll.
- Over the years, the RPA 1950 has been amended several times. Notable changes include lowering the voting age from 21 to 18 through the 61st Constitutional Amendment (1988), and provisions for delimitation of constituencies following each Census (though the process is currently frozen until 2026).
- In essence, the RPA 1950 forms the backbone of India’s electoral system, ensuring that representation in legislatures is based on population, fairness, and universal adult suffrage
- The Election Commission (EC) has firmly conveyed to the Supreme Court that decisions regarding the timing and manner of conducting special intensive revisions (SIR) of electoral rolls fall solely within its domain and are not open to judicial intervention.
- This statement was made in response to a petition urging the Court to direct the Commission to hold SIR exercises at fixed intervals across the country to detect and remove foreign nationals allegedly registered as voters.
- According to the EC, whether the revision should be carried out in a summary or an intensive manner depends entirely on prevailing circumstances, and such a determination is its exclusive prerogative.
- The Commission stressed that under the Representation of the People Act, 1950 and the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, it enjoys complete discretion both over the nature of revisions and the timing of these exercises.
- The law does not impose any fixed schedule for such revisions, but authorizes the Commission to order them in any constituency or part thereof “in such manner as it may think fit.”
- The petitioner, Ashwini Kumar Upadhyay, had argued that regular SIRs before every general, state, or local body election were essential to ensure the credibility of the electoral process.
- However, the EC rejected the idea of court-mandated revisions, asserting that such directions would intrude upon its exclusive jurisdiction.
- The issue arises in the backdrop of the Bihar SIR exercise, which has been challenged by petitioners, including opposition parties, on grounds that it amounts to “citizenship screening” disguised as voter list revision.
- Reassuring the Court, the EC said it remains fully aware of its legal duty to preserve the integrity of electoral rolls. It confirmed plans for a nationwide SIR with January 1, 2026, as the qualifying date. The Commission noted that on July 5, it had instructed all Chief Electoral Officers (CEOs) of States and Union Territories to begin pre-revision activities in preparation for this exercise.
- Furthermore, a conference of all CEOs was scheduled for September 10 in New Delhi to strengthen coordination and streamline preparations for the nationwide SIR
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Answer (D)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties. |