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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on October 26, 2024
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The role of constitution in shaping Indian and American democracies
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains Examination: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance
Context:
While India has completed its general elections in mid-2024 and the new government has assumed office, the US is gearing up for its own electoral process, with the presidential elections set to take place soon.
Read about:
India’s constitutional design
US constitutional system
Key takeaways:
India’s Constitutional Framework
The Indian Constitution establishes a parliamentary democracy characterized by a federal structure. It features a dual executive system, where the Prime Minister serves as the de facto executive and head of government, while the President acts as the de jure executive in a ceremonial capacity as the head of state.
This quasi-federal structure divides powers between a strong central government and the states, which are not permitted to secede from the union. The Indian Constitution effectively combines the American principle of judicial supremacy with the British principle of parliamentary supremacy. The Supreme Court of India has the authority to declare any parliamentary law unconstitutional, while Parliament can amend the Constitution, provided such amendments do not violate its basic structure.
The US Constitutional System
In contrast, the US Constitution outlines a presidential system where the President serves as both the de jure and de facto executive. This framework implements the separation of powers, which distinguishes the executive branch from the legislature, granting substantial authority to the President as both head of state and government.
Additionally, the US Constitution establishes a federal system that allows states greater autonomy relative to the federal government, with residual powers resting with the states. The US system of judicial supremacy empowers the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional, providing a check on the legislative branch.
However, the amendment process in the US Constitution is more rigorous compared to India’s basic structure doctrine. Amendments require a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress and must be ratified by three-quarters of the states, resulting in only 27 amendments since its ratification in 1787, whereas the Indian Constitution has undergone 106 amendments since its adoption in 1949 due to its more flexible provisions.
Similarities and Differences
Both constitutions exhibit several similarities while also showcasing key differences in their core philosophies and mechanisms. The Indian Constituent Assembly crafted the Constitution by integrating various ideas from global constitutions and adapting them to India's specific context. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the drafting committee, famously noted that the Indian Constitution was created by "ransacking all the known constitutions of the world," with the US Constitution being one of its influences.
Several significant elements of the Indian Constitution, including provisions for fundamental rights, the independent judicial system, judicial review, impeachment processes for the President and judges of the Supreme and High Courts, and the role of the Vice President, have been adapted from the US Constitution.
Contrasting Features
Despite these similarities, there are substantial differences. India’s vibrant multi-party system starkly contrasts with the predominantly two-party system in the US. The fundamental rights outlined in the Indian Constitution not only protect against state interference but also promote social and economic rights, whereas the US Constitution primarily emphasizes individual freedoms and safeguards against government overreach.
Regarding emergency powers, India includes comprehensive provisions for declaring a state of emergency, enabling the government to assume extraordinary powers during crises. Conversely, the US Constitution lacks formal emergency provisions, permitting only the suspension of certain rights during war or insurrection.
While both countries have federal characteristics, India operates as a quasi-federal system described as an "indestructible union of destructible states," whereas the US is a true federation, referred to as an "indestructible union of indestructible states."
The judicial structures of the two nations also differ significantly. India features a unified judiciary led by the Supreme Court, which is at the top of a hierarchy that includes High Courts and subordinate courts, granting the Supreme Court the ultimate authority over all legal and constitutional matters
Follow Up Question
1.With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, GS1, 2020)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
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Answer (c)
Statement 1: "Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India."
Statement 2: "A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does."
Since both statements are correct, the answer is (c) Both 1 and 2. |
How the Chief Justice of India is appointed?
Who appoints the Chief Justice of India?
Key takeaways:
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The government notification stated, “Utilizing the powers granted by clause (2) of Article 124 of the Constitution of India, the President is pleased to appoint Shri Justice Sanjiv Khanna, currently a Judge of the Supreme Court, as the Chief Justice of India, effective from 11 November 2024.”
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Justice Khanna was appointed to the Supreme Court in January 2019. Although he has not previously held the position of Chief Justice in a High Court, he was promoted ahead of other senior judges from the Delhi High Court.
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Justice Khanna has been responsible for several significant rulings. He was part of the five-judge Constitution Bench that ruled the Electoral Bond Scheme unconstitutional in February of this year and contributed to the bench that upheld the abrogation of Article 370 of the Constitution in 2023. In that same year, Justice Khanna authored an important ruling from a Constitutional Bench, affirming the Supreme Court's authority to grant divorce directly under Article 142 of the Constitution on the basis of “irretrievable breakdown of marriage.”
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To be eligible, a candidate must not only be an Indian citizen but also (a) have served as a Judge of a High Court for at least five years, or held positions in two or more such Courts in succession; or (b) have practiced as an advocate in a High Court for a minimum of ten years, or in two or more such Courts consecutively; or (c) be regarded as a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
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The appointment of the Chief Justice of India and other Supreme Court judges is made by the President under clause (2) of Article 124 of the Indian Constitution. Article 124 specifies that the President's appointments should be made “after consultation” with Supreme Court judges, as deemed “necessary” by the President.
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Article 217, concerning the appointment of High Court judges, states that the President should consult the Chief Justice of India, the Governor, and the Chief Justice of the relevant High Court. Additionally, the Chief Justice of India serves until the age of 65, while High Court judges retire at 62
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Answer (C)
Statement 1: "Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India."
Statement 2: "A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does."
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Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) are financial institutions that provide various banking services but do not hold a banking license. They play a crucial role in the financial system by providing credit, investment, and financial services to businesses and individuals. Here are key features and functions of NBFCs:
Key Features of NBFCs:
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Financial Services: NBFCs offer a wide range of financial services, including loans and advances, asset financing, investment in shares and securities, leasing, and hire purchase.
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Regulation: In India, NBFCs are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, but they are not allowed to accept demand deposits, unlike banks.
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Types: NBFCs can be categorized into various types based on their functions:
- Asset Finance Companies: Primarily provide financing for acquiring assets like vehicles, machinery, etc.
- Loan Companies: Provide loans and advances for consumption and other purposes.
- Investment Companies: Primarily engaged in buying and selling securities.
- Infrastructure Finance Companies: Focus on financing infrastructure projects.
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Access to Credit: NBFCs often cater to underserved sectors that may not have access to traditional banking services, providing loans to small and medium enterprises (SMEs), retail customers, and other borrowers.
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Flexibility: They generally have more flexible lending norms compared to banks, allowing them to serve a diverse clientele.
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Default: NPAs arise when borrowers fail to make interest or principal payments on their loans for a certain duration, commonly 90 days.
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Classification: Assets are classified as NPAs based on the following categories:
- Substandard Assets: Assets that are non-performing for less than 12 months.
- Doubtful Assets: Assets that are non-performing for more than 12 months.
- Loss Assets: Assets that are considered uncollectible and are written off or require significant provisioning.
- They cannot engage in the acquisition of securities issued by the government.
- They cannot accept demand deposits like Savings Account.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
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Answer (b)
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What does USCIRF report say about India?
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of antional and international importance
For Mains Examination: GS II - International reports
Context:
The Washington DC-based United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) on October 2 released a country update on India, flagging “collapsing religious freedom conditions”. Among other things, the report highlighted how throughout 2024, individuals from minority communities have been killed and lynched by vigilante groups, religious leaders have been arbitrarily arrested, and places of worship have been demolished. The Indian government has rejected the report as coming from a “biased organisation”.
Read about:
What is the USCIRF?
Is the USCIRF ‘biased’ and ‘agenda-driven’?
Key takeaways:
- On October 2, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), based in Washington D.C., published a country update on India, highlighting the alarming decline in religious freedom.
- The report noted that throughout 2024, there have been incidents of violence against individuals from minority communities, including killings and lynchings by vigilante groups.
- Additionally, it pointed out that religious leaders have faced arbitrary arrests and that places of worship have been destroyed. In response, the Indian government dismissed the report, labeling USCIRF as a "biased organization."
- Established under the 1998 International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA), the USCIRF is an independent and bipartisan agency that monitors the right to freedom of religion or belief worldwide, outside the U.S. Its evaluations are rooted in international human rights standards, particularly Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirms everyone's right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
- The USCIRF operates independently from the U.S. State Department's Office of International Religious Freedom (IRF), which also publishes annual reports on religious freedom.
- Although USCIRF's findings can influence a nation's reputation, the IRF's positions have a more significant impact on diplomatic relations. Following its mandate, the USCIRF gathers information on religious freedom through travel, research, and discussions with various stakeholders, culminating in an annual report that identifies countries warranting designation as "Countries of Particular Concern" (CPC).
- Those that experience severe violations but do not meet the CPC criteria may be placed on a "Special Watch List" (SWL).
- Countries categorized as CPCs are those that engage in systematic and egregious violations of religious freedom. The USCIRF's 2024 report declared India as a CPC, citing the government's actions, such as the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2019, which, along with anti-conversion and cow slaughter laws, has been used to marginalize religious minorities.
- The report also emphasized how officials have utilized hateful rhetoric and misinformation, inciting violence against these groups.
- While the USCIRF's reports are based on credible research and direct testimonies, the timing of the latest update has raised questions about potential biases, echoing concerns from the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) about the report being “agenda-driven.”
The history of life on Earth spans approximately 4.5 billion years and is marked by significant evolutionary milestones:
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Origin of Life (Around 3.8 billion years ago): Life is believed to have originated in the oceans, with the first organisms being simple, single-celled prokaryotes, such as bacteria. These early life forms thrived in extreme environments.
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Photosynthesis and Oxygenation (Around 2.7 billion years ago): Cyanobacteria evolved the ability to perform photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a byproduct. This led to the Great Oxidation Event, drastically changing Earth's atmosphere and paving the way for aerobic (oxygen-dependent) life.
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Eukaryotic Life (Around 2 billion years ago): More complex cells called eukaryotes emerged, characterized by a nucleus and organelles. This development set the stage for multicellular organisms.
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Multicellular Life (Around 600 million years ago): The first multicellular organisms appeared, leading to a variety of life forms in the oceans, including early plants and animals.
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Cambrian Explosion (Around 541 million years ago): A rapid diversification of life occurred, with many major animal groups emerging in a relatively short geological period.
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Colonization of Land (Around 450 million years ago): Plants were the first to colonize land, followed by arthropods and eventually vertebrates, leading to the establishment of terrestrial ecosystems.
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Age of Dinosaurs (Around 230 million years ago): Dinosaurs dominated the Earth during the Mesozoic Era. They evolved into a variety of forms, including the ancestors of modern birds.
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Mass Extinction Events: Several mass extinction events occurred throughout history, the most notable being the Permian-Triassic extinction (about 252 million years ago) and the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction (about 66 million years ago), which led to the demise of the dinosaurs.
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Rise of Mammals (After the dinosaurs' extinction): With the dinosaurs gone, mammals began to diversify and occupy various ecological niches. This period saw the emergence of primates, leading to the eventual evolution of humans.
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Human Evolution (Around 6 million years ago): The lineage leading to humans diverged from other primates. Homo sapiens appeared around 300,000 years ago, and since then, humans have significantly impacted the planet through agriculture, urbanization, and technology
Losing biodiversity can have profound and far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, human health, and the overall stability of the planet. Here are some key impacts of biodiversity loss:
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Ecosystem Imbalance: Each species plays a unique role within its ecosystem, contributing to functions like pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control. The loss of a species can disrupt these functions, leading to an imbalance that can affect the health of the entire ecosystem.
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Decreased Resilience: Biodiverse ecosystems are generally more resilient to environmental changes and stressors, such as climate change, disease, and natural disasters. A reduction in biodiversity can weaken this resilience, making ecosystems more vulnerable to collapse.
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Loss of Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity is vital for providing ecosystem services that humans rely on, including clean air and water, food production, climate regulation, and natural disaster mitigation. The decline of biodiversity threatens these essential services, potentially leading to food insecurity, poor health, and economic challenges.
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Increased Vulnerability to Diseases: Biodiversity can help regulate populations of disease vectors and pathogens. A decline in biodiversity may lead to an increase in diseases, as certain species that keep populations in check may vanish, allowing disease-carrying organisms to thrive.
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Impact on Human Health: Loss of biodiversity can lead to a decrease in the availability of medicinal resources, as many pharmaceuticals are derived from plants and animals. Additionally, a less diverse ecosystem can impact nutrition and food security.
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Economic Consequences: Many industries, including agriculture, fishing, and tourism, rely on healthy ecosystems. Biodiversity loss can disrupt these industries, leading to economic decline and job losses.
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Cultural Loss: Biodiversity is often intertwined with cultural identities and practices. The loss of species can diminish cultural heritage and traditional knowledge tied to natural resources.
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Climate Change Implications: Biodiverse ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, play a crucial role in sequestering carbon dioxide. The loss of these ecosystems can exacerbate climate change by releasing stored carbon and reducing the planet's capacity to absorb greenhouse gases.
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Extinction of Species: As biodiversity declines, many species face the risk of extinction, leading to irreversible losses in the richness of life on Earth. Each extinction diminishes the genetic diversity that is crucial for adapting to changing environments.
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Interconnectedness of Life: Biodiversity loss highlights the interconnectedness of all living things. The decline of one species can have cascading effects on others, leading to further losses and disrupting food webs
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Answer (C)
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| Subject | Topic | Description |
| History | Modern Indian History | Company rule and Crown rule 1773 - 1947 |
| History | Modern Indian History | Fall of Mughals |
| History | Modern Indian History | Establishment of British rule in India |
| History | Modern Indian History | Economic Policies of the British |
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