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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on January 27, 2025

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Why has the U.S. often exited climate pacts?

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

For Mains Examination: GS II & III - Governance & Environment

Context:

Among the first executive orders that Donald Trump signed after taking over as President on January 20 was to withdraw the U.S. from the Paris Agreement of 2015. This makes it the third time the U.S. has withdrawn from a treaty signed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Read about:

Paris Agreement

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Key takeaways:

The History of U.S. Engagement with Climate Treaties

• The United States first withdrew from a climate agreement in 2001 when President George W. Bush decided to exit the Kyoto Protocol, which had been adopted in 1997. This treaty was historic as it marked the first time 37 industrialized nations agreed to legally binding targets for reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
• However, President Bush justified the withdrawal by claiming that the treaty would harm the U.S. economy and unfairly exempted 80% of the world, including populous nations like China and India, from compliance. He expressed these concerns in a letter to Republican senators.
• In 2017, President Donald Trump announced the U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, citing similar concerns. He argued that the agreement placed unfair restrictions on the U.S. while giving advantages to other major polluting nations.
•  The withdrawal also meant that the U.S. would stop pursuing its emission reduction targets and cease contributions to the Green Climate Fund, a resource designed to help vulnerable nations adapt to climate change.
• However, due to the technical requirements of the Paris Agreement, the withdrawal process took three years, with an additional year required to notify the United Nations governing body.
• By the time the withdrawal was finalized in November 2020, Joe Biden had already been elected as the next president. Upon assuming office in January 2021, Biden immediately rejoined the Paris Agreement, reaffirming the U.S. commitment to global efforts to limit global temperature increases to below 2 degrees Celsius, with an aspirational goal of keeping them below 1.5 degrees Celsius.

U.S. Perspectives on Climate Agreements

• Historically, the U.S. has been reluctant to fully embrace legally binding emission cuts, despite being the largest emitter of greenhouse gases until 2006. As the world's largest economy, the U.S. has often positioned itself as a leader in addressing climate change while avoiding strict compliance with European Union-backed climate treaties.
• Since the first Conference of Parties (COP) in 1995, the U.S. has expressed discomfort with the core principle of the UNFCCC, which holds that developed nations, being primarily responsible for historical carbon emissions, should bear the bulk of the costs for mitigation.
• This perspective has also led the U.S. to advocate for mechanisms like joint implementation, where developed nations earn credits by funding clean energy projects in developing countries.
• Even when not formally participating in agreements, the U.S. has sent large delegations to climate conferences to observe and influence negotiations. For example, at COP 11 in 2005, despite not being part of the Kyoto Protocol, the U.S. delegation walked out of discussions, highlighting its resistance to binding commitments.

The Current Status of U.S. Climate Commitments

• Although President Biden has raised the U.S. emissions reduction target to 61%-66% of 2005 levels by 2035, the country is significantly behind in meeting its goals. As of 2022, the U.S. had only achieved about one-third of its 2030 target.
• While there is bipartisan resistance to restricting oil and gas production, the U.S. remains the world's largest producer of crude oil and natural gas, with record production levels in recent years.
• Despite these challenges, the U.S. continues to play a complex role in global climate discussions, balancing domestic economic interests with international commitments to combat climate change

 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
• It serves as the foundational framework for global efforts to combat climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere and preventing dangerous human interference with the climate system
• The primary aim of the UNFCCC is to stabilize GHG concentrations at levels that prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-caused) interference with the climate system. This should be achieved within a time frame that allows ecosystems to adapt naturally, ensures food security, and supports sustainable economic development
• The UNFCCC acts as a parent treaty for subsequent agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015), which provide specific mechanisms and targets to address climate change

Major Agreements under the UNFCCC

• Kyoto Protocol (1997):

  • Legally binding emission reduction targets for 37 developed countries and economies in transition.
  • Introduced market mechanisms like Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Carbon Trading.

• Paris Agreement (2015):

  • Aims to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C, with efforts to keep it below 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
  • Countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate goals.
  • No legally binding targets but emphasizes collective action

Follow Up Question

1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

Indian space programme breaks into 2025 in ‘mission mode’

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology

Context:

The PSLV-C60 mission laid the foundations for Chandrayaan-4 and the Bharatiya Antariksh Station. Forthcoming test flights will move India closer to human spaceflight, soon to receive a helping hand from a third launch pad at Sriharikota, continuing work on NGLV, and a change of guard at ISRO

Read about:

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles (PSLV)

Geo Satellite Launch Vehicles (GSLV)

Key takeaways:

• On December 30, 2024, the PSLV-C60 mission launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) in Sriharikota. Within 15 minutes, the rocket successfully placed the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) satellites into a 475-km circular orbit at slightly different velocities.
• Kepler Aerospace, an Indian private company, partnered with ISRO to provide ground station-as-a-service support for the mission. The company simultaneously managed both SpaDeX satellites and delivered comprehensive mission support in less than a month.
• A Swiss firm specializing in space situational awareness, s2a systems, shared updates on the satellites’ separation distances via social media. On January 2, 2025, the satellites reached a separation of 10–20 km, referred to as far rendezvous conditions. By January 6, they began moving closer. Although ISRO initially planned a live webcast for January 7, it postponed the event before canceling it entirely.
• On January 8, ISRO reported an unexpected drift when the satellites’ separation was reduced from 500 m to 225 m. Consequently, the separation was reset to 6–8 km on January 9 to begin the docking process anew.
• By January 10, the satellites entered a ‘hold’ mode to maintain a distance of 1.5 km. Over the following days, the inter-satellite distance was progressively reduced: to 230 m on January 11, then to 105 m, 15 m, and finally 3 m by January 12. At this stage, ISRO temporarily increased the distance to 10.9 km to analyze sensor data before proceeding.
• On January 13, the satellites approached each other again, reaching 2.6 km apart, and by January 15, the distance was reduced to 900 m. Finally, on January 16, ISRO announced that the satellites had successfully docked and stabilized in orbit, marking the organization’s first in-orbit rendezvous and docking milestone. Post-docking, the satellites were controlled together from one unit, a critical capability for lunar and space station operations

GSLV and PSLV

 The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) are two of the most important satellite launch vehicles developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). They serve distinct purposes and are used based on mission requirements.

Here's a comparison of the two:

• The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is one of the most reliable and versatile satellite launch vehicles developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Its primary function is to launch satellites into Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO), making it ideal for earth observation and remote sensing missions.
• However, PSLV is not limited to SSO; it is also capable of placing satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbits (GTO) and Low Earth Orbits (LEO), adding to its flexibility. The PSLV had its maiden flight on September 20, 1993, and since then, it has undergone numerous improvements to enhance its performance and reliability.
• The PSLV is a four-stage launch vehicle that alternates between solid and liquid propulsion systems. This unique design ensures a balance of power and precision during its mission. It has a payload capacity of up to 1,750 kg to SSO and up to 1,420 kg to GTO.
• Known as the "Workhorse of ISRO," the PSLV is celebrated for its high success rate and cost-effectiveness, making it a favored choice for launching satellites. Over the years, the PSLV has undertaken several landmark missions.
• Notable among these are Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, India’s first lunar exploration mission, and the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) in 2013, which made India the first country to reach Mars on its first attempt. In 2017, the PSLV-C37 mission set a world record by successfully deploying 104 satellites in a single mission, demonstrating its capability to handle complex operations.
• On the other hand, the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is a more advanced and powerful launch vehicle developed by ISRO. Its primary objective is to launch heavier payloads into Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), although it is also capable of launching payloads into LEO. The GSLV made its debut on April 18, 2001, and since then, it has become a critical asset for India’s space program.
• The GSLV is a three-stage launch vehicle, incorporating a solid-propulsion first stage, a liquid-propulsion second stage, and a cryogenic third stage. The cryogenic stage, which uses liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, provides higher efficiency and thrust, enabling the vehicle to carry payloads weighing up to 5,000 kg to LEO and up to 2,500 kg to GTO. The development of an indigenous cryogenic upper stage was a major milestone for ISRO, marking a significant technological achievement.
• The GSLV has been instrumental in deploying India’s GSAT series of communication satellites, which are crucial for telecommunication and broadcasting services. It was also used in the Chandrayaan-2 mission in 2019, India’s second lunar exploration mission. Recently, in 2023, the GSLV successfully launched the NVS-01 satellite, which plays a vital role in India’s navigation system.
• Together, the PSLV and GSLV have propelled India’s space ambitions, each serving distinct purposes. While the PSLV excels in launching smaller satellites and multi-satellite payloads, the GSLV is designed for heavier payloads and higher orbits, making both vehicles complementary and indispensable to ISRO’s endeavors

1.With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)

1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only

B. 2 and 3

C. 1 and 2

D. 3 only

 

Answer (A)   Statement 1: Correct The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is primarily used for launching satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring into Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO). These satellites are often used for remote sensing and Earth observation. The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), on the other hand, is designed to launch heavier communication satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbits (GTO). Statement 2: Incorrect Satellites launched by the PSLV into Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO) move over the poles and do not remain fixed relative to a specific location on Earth. Satellites that appear fixed in the sky are in Geostationary Orbits, which are typically achieved by launch vehicles like the GSLV, not the PSLV. Statement 3: Incorrect The GSLV Mk III is a three-stage launch vehicle, not four-stage. The first stage uses two solid rocket boosters. The second stage uses a liquid engine (the Vikas engine). The third stage is a cryogenic stage, which uses liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants. Therefore, the description in this statement about the stages and their propulsion systems is incorrect.

 

Should Governors head State universities?

 

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international importance

 

For Mains Examination: GS II - Polity & Governance

 

Context:

 

The Governor’s role as Chancellor of State universities has become politicised, undermining university autonomy and causing governance issues, especially in States with Opposition-led governments: various reform models have been proposed to reduce political interference and improve university administration

 

 

Read about:

 

Role of Governors in Public Universities

 

Governor and his/her powers

 

Key takeaways:

 

The role of the Governor as the Chancellor of State universities has been a subject of considerable debate and controversy. While often misconceived as a post-Independence measure to shield universities from political interference, this role was never envisioned by the Indian Constitution. Instead, it was established through State university laws, a practice inherited from British colonial rule. Originally, this role was designed to curtail university autonomy rather than protect it.

In 1857, the British founded the first three universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The Governors of these presidencies were appointed as the universities' ex-officio Chancellors to ensure direct control over their functioning. As Chancellors, they were empowered to appoint Vice-Chancellors, nominate members to key university bodies, oversee delegated legislation, and preside over convocations. This model of centralized control was adopted unchanged by State universities in post-Independence India, without a reassessment of its suitability in a democratic and federal setup.

The Politicization of the Governor's Office

• From 1947 to 1967, the dominance of the Congress party at both the central and state levels rendered Governors largely ceremonial figures, with Chief Ministers wielding actual power. Consequently, there was little push to amend the colonial-era practice of Governors serving as Chancellors.
• However, the political landscape shifted in 1967 when non-Congress parties began governing several States. Governors, no longer neutral constitutional functionaries, started acting as instruments of the Central government.
• Their involvement in university affairs often led to tensions with State governments. Efforts to amend university laws to change the Chancellor's role faced resistance, with Governors either delaying their assent or referring the amendments to the President. Only a few States succeeded in making these changes.
• This shift in the Governor’s role also attracted criticism. The First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966–77) highlighted the growing politicization of the Governor’s office, noting that many Governors were appointed from among defeated politicians, thereby diminishing the dignity of the position.
• The Sarkaria Commission (1983–88) revealed that over 60% of Governors had been active politicians, often appointed immediately after their political careers. Research by Professor Ashok Pankaj (1950–2015) found that a significant proportion of Governors (52%) were politicians, while only a minority (22%) came from academia, the judiciary, or other professional fields, underscoring the increasing use of the office as a political tool.

Dual Role of the Governor

The Governor’s powers are divided into two categories: those exercised in his constitutional capacity, where he must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 163(1)), and those granted by statutes, such as the Chancellor’s role, where he can act independently unless specified otherwise by law. The Supreme Court has upheld this distinction, allowing Governors to bypass ministerial advice in critical university matters, including appointing Vice-Chancellors and approving subordinate legislation. This has been particularly contentious in Opposition-ruled States.

Governor vs. President: A Comparison

• While the Governor’s role as Chancellor of State universities is marked by unilateral decision-making, the President’s role as Visitor of Central universities involves greater consultation and oversight.
• The President works through the Ministry of Education, consulting it on appointments and legislative approvals, with delegated legislation being reviewed by Parliament.
• In contrast, State university laws lack such mechanisms for legislative oversight, allowing Governors to bypass State higher education ministries, especially in States governed by Opposition parties.
• This gap reflects the persistence of colonial practices and raises concerns about the autonomy and governance of State universities.

Key Challenges

• The continued reliance on the "Governor as Chancellor" model has led to significant governance challenges in State universities. While State governments fund these institutions, Governors wield substantial power without corresponding accountability.
• This dual authority structure often results in conflicts and delays, particularly in appointing Vice-Chancellors, implementing projects, and awarding degrees.
• Many Governors lack the requisite academic experience, and their decisions, often influenced by limited and non-transparent advice, can hinder the effective functioning of universities.
• Instead of insulating universities from politics, some Governors exacerbate political interference by prioritizing the Centre’s agenda over the interests of the universities.

Recommendations for Reform

• Several commissions have examined the Governor's role as Chancellor and suggested reforms. The Rajamannar Committee (1969–71) advocated for Governors to act on the advice of State governments in their statutory roles.
• The Sarkaria Commission emphasized the statutory nature of the Chancellor’s role and recommended consultation with Chief Ministers while retaining independent judgment. The M.M.
• Punchhi Commission (2007–10) went further, recommending that Governors focus solely on constitutional responsibilities and avoid statutory roles like that of Chancellor.
• It proposed appointing eminent academics or public figures as Chancellors to ensure academic independence.

Alternative Models

Globally, the Chancellor’s role is often ceremonial, providing leadership without executive authority. Drawing from this, several models have been proposed for India:

• Ceremonial Chancellor Model: The Governor retains the title but acts solely on the advice of the State Council of Ministers. States like Gujarat, Karnataka, and Maharashtra have adopted variations of this approach.
• Chief Minister as Chancellor Model: States like West Bengal and Punjab have passed Bills to make the Chief Minister the Chancellor, but these await Presidential assent. Tamil Nadu has proposed substituting the “Chancellor” with the “Government” for decision-making.
• State-Appointed Chancellor Model: Telangana implemented this model in 2015, where the State government appoints a ceremonial Chancellor. Kerala has proposed a similar model, specifying that the appointee should be an eminent academic or public figure.
• Elected Chancellor Model: Universities could allow their bodies or alumni to elect a ceremonial Chancellor, as practiced in institutions like Oxford and Cambridge

 

Follow Up Question

 

1.With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2019)

1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.
2. When a State Legislature does not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2 
D. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (C)   Governor's Address: The Governor addresses the Legislative Assembly at the beginning of the first session of the year, which is typically the Budget Session. This is a constitutional obligation under Article 176(1) of the Indian Constitution. The address outlines the policies and programs of the government and sets the legislative agenda for the year. Thus, Statement 1 is correct. Lok Sabha Rules as Reference: When a State Legislature lacks specific rules on a matter, it follows the rules of the Lok Sabha as a guideline, as per parliamentary conventions and practices. This ensures consistency and fills procedural gaps in the functioning of State Legislatures. Hence, Statement 2 is correct

 

 

Why are crypto withdrawals being restricted for investors?

 

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international importance

 

For Mains Examination: GS III - Governance on Economy

 

Context:

 

Mudrex, a crypto platform that is “U.S.-headquartered and Bengaluru-based” made headlines this month when it announced it was temporarily pausing crypto withdrawals until January 28, to “enhance the security of our platform and safeguard against bad actors,”

 

Read about:

 

What is Crypto Currency?

 

Crypto Exchanges

 

Key takeaways:

 

What challenges are crypto investors in India facing?

• Crypto traders in India signing up with well-known centralized exchanges must undergo a detailed registration process, including Know-Your-Customer (KYC) procedures, to comply with India's regulations on Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Combating the Financing of Terrorism (CFT).
• Users submit their national identity documents and verify their identity to access the platform seamlessly, especially in a volatile market where asset prices can change drastically within seconds.
• However, many traders feel frustrated or alarmed when they make profits through these exchanges but discover they cannot withdraw their crypto assets through the same platform.
• Social media, particularly X (formerly Twitter), is filled with complaints from users claiming that crypto withdrawal policies were either not communicated clearly or were changed without notice. This situation creates anxiety among investors, as they question whether exchanges are withholding assets intentionally or facing liquidity issues.

Why are crypto withdrawals being restricted?

• Crypto exchanges in India have varied policies regarding withdrawals. While some exchanges allow withdrawals, others permit it only for select users or under specific conditions. There are also platforms that block withdrawals entirely for all users.
• One common reason cited for these restrictions is concern that Indian authorities may penalize the exchange if users are found withdrawing crypto assets. Another concern is that the withdrawn assets could be used for illegal activities or transactions on dark markets.
• For instance, CoinSwitch, a prominent exchange, has a policy against crypto withdrawals. According to Balaji Srihari, Vice President of CoinSwitch, users can instead withdraw funds by converting crypto into INR and transferring the money to their bank accounts.
• On the other hand, Zebpay, an exchange headquartered in Singapore with additional international offices, offers two modes of operation for users: one allows crypto withdrawals, while the other does not.
• Zebpay also requires users opting for manual transfers to add the platform’s bank details to their banking apps, deposit funds from their registered accounts, and provide proof of the transaction through bank statements or receipts.
• Meanwhile, Binance, a global crypto exchange, became a registered reporting entity with FIU-IND in 2024 after facing legal action from Indian authorities.
• However, its ownership of the Indian exchange WazirX remains contested, with both sides locked in an ongoing legal battle. The lack of clarity in this dispute has further added to the confusion among Indian crypto investors

Crypto Currency

 

• Cryptocurrency is a type of digital or virtual currency that operates on a decentralized network using blockchain technology.
• Unlike traditional currencies, which are issued and regulated by central banks or governments, cryptocurrencies are maintained through a network of computers (or nodes) that use cryptographic techniques to secure transactions, control the creation of new units, and verify asset transfers. This decentralized approach removes the need for intermediaries like banks, making transactions faster, more transparent, and often less costly.
• The foundation of cryptocurrency lies in blockchain technology—a distributed ledger system that records all transactions in a secure, immutable, and transparent manner.
• Every transaction is grouped into a "block" and added to a "chain" of previous transactions, forming a chronological and public record. This ensures that once a transaction is recorded, it cannot be altered or tampered with, enhancing the security and trustworthiness of the system.
• Bitcoin, created in 2009 by an anonymous individual or group under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto, was the first cryptocurrency and remains the most well-known.
• It was designed as a peer-to-peer electronic cash system, allowing users to send and receive payments without relying on a central authority.
• Following Bitcoin's success, numerous other cryptocurrencies, collectively referred to as "altcoins," have been developed, including Ethereum, Ripple, Litecoin, and Binance Coin, each serving different purposes and addressing various use cases

 

Follow Up Question

 

1.With reference to “Blockchain Technology”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)

1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, but which no single user controls.

2. The structure and design of the blockchain are such that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency only.

3. Applications that depend on the basic features of blockchain can be developed without anybody’s permission.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only

B. 1 and 2 only

C. 2 only

D. 1 and 3 only

 

Answer (D)   Statement 1: It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, but which no single user controls. This statement is correct. Blockchain technology operates as a decentralized ledger that is accessible to all participants in the network. No single entity controls it, and its transparency ensures that anyone can inspect the recorded data. Statement 2: The structure and design of the blockchain are such that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency only. This statement is incorrect. While blockchain technology gained popularity due to its use in cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, its applications extend far beyond that. It can be used in supply chain management, healthcare, voting systems, identity verification, and more. Statement 3: Applications that depend on the basic features of blockchain can be developed without anybody’s permission. This statement is correct. Public blockchains like Ethereum allow developers to create applications (e.g., smart contracts, decentralized apps) without needing permission from a central authority. This aligns with the decentralized and open nature of blockchain technology

 

 

 

Subject and Subject Wise Notes for the Sunday Exam (Free)

 

Subject	Topic	Description
History	Modern Indian History	Important Personalities
History	Modern Indian History	Independence and Partition
History	Modern Indian History	Constitutional Development in India
History	Modern Indian History	Peasants, Tribal and other movements

 

 

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