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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on May 05, 2025

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India Justice Report 2025

For Preliminary Examination:  Important Reports

For Mains Examination: GS II - Indian reports on Judiciary

Context:

Last month, the fourth edition of the India Justice Report (IJR) 2025 was published, which tracks each state’s structural and financial capability to deliver justice. It was first published in 2019 with the support of Tata Trusts. The 2025 edition was undertaken in partnership with DAKSH, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Common Cause, Centre for Social Justice, Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, and TISS-Prayas

Read about:

India Justice Report (IJR) 2025

Indian Judiciary

Key takeaways:

• The India Justice Report is a comprehensive study that evaluates the capacity and performance of key pillars of the country’s justice system — namely the police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid.
• First released in 2019 and published by Tata Trusts in collaboration with several civil society partners such as the Centre for Social Justice, Common Cause, and CHRI, the report aims to provide data-driven insights into how effectively states are delivering justice to their citizens.
• The report ranks Indian states based on publicly available government data, using a range of indicators that assess not only the presence of infrastructure and personnel but also factors such as diversity, workload, budget allocation, training, and the accessibility of justice services.
• For example, it looks at vacancies in police forces and courts, the representation of women and marginalised communities, and the availability of legal aid services. It also highlights budgetary allocations and their actual utilisation within each sector.
• One of the major contributions of the India Justice Report is its state-wise ranking, which encourages competition and accountability among states. Larger states and smaller states are ranked separately to ensure a fair comparison. The aim is not only to show where states stand but also to promote improvements through evidence-based policymaking.
• The findings of the report often reveal persistent gaps in the justice system. For instance, many states struggle with high vacancy rates in police and judicial positions, which leads to delayed investigations and prolonged case pendency in courts. It also underscores the underutilisation of funds in the justice sector and highlights how access to justice remains uneven, especially for vulnerable populations.
• By providing a detailed and data-backed snapshot of the justice system, the India Justice Report plays a crucial role in pushing for reforms, enhancing transparency, and encouraging collaborative efforts among government bodies, civil society, and the general public to build a more equitable and efficient justice delivery mechanism in India.

The India Justice Report underscores several ongoing challenges within India’s justice system across key domains:

• Policing remains urban-centric, with a notable reduction in the number of rural police stations between 2017 and 2023. The police-to-population ratio continues to lag at 155 officers per 100,000 people, well below the sanctioned level of 197.
• This shortfall often results in delayed investigations and weakened public safety. Bihar serves as a striking example, with only 81 police officers per lakh population.
• In terms of the judiciary, the report reveals a sharp 20% increase in pending cases, which have now crossed the five-crore mark. Court infrastructure struggles to keep up, with shortages in courtroom availability and significant vacancies in both high courts (33%) and district courts (21%).
• District court judges are handling an average caseload of 2,200 cases each, and while the case clearance rate stands at 94%, the overall pace of justice delivery remains slow, eroding public trust in the system.
• Prisons continue to suffer from severe overcrowding, with some facilities operating at more than 400% of their capacity. On average, prisons are at 131% occupancy. A staggering 76% of inmates are undertrials — individuals not yet convicted — and among them, one in four has been incarcerated for one to three years awaiting trial.
• The average daily expenditure per prisoner is just ₹121, reflecting insufficient investment in prison infrastructure, inmate welfare, and reform initiatives, all of which fall short of the standards envisioned under the 2023 Model Prisons & Correctional Services Act. The report also references the findings of the Amitava Roy Committee on prison reforms.
• Regarding legal aid, the report points to issues such as underutilisation of available funds, inefficient staffing patterns, and a decline in community-level legal support services, including village legal services clinics — with only one clinic available for every 163 villages. The legal aid system currently comprises over 41,000 lawyers and 43,000 paralegal volunteers.
• In the area of forensics, the justice system grapples with deep structural limitations, including chronic underinvestment, obsolete equipment, and a shortage of trained personnel. Furthermore, state human rights commissions are often hampered by unfilled senior posts and weak mechanisms for addressing complaints effectively.
• Despite these concerns, the report also highlights several positive developments. The proportion of women judges in the district judiciary has risen to 38%. Additionally, 83% of police stations across India are now equipped with at least one CCTV camera.
• There has also been an encouraging trend of increased government spending to strengthen the foundational capacity of the justice system.
• In the overall ranking of large and mid-sized states under the 2025 edition of the report, Karnataka retained the top position, followed by Andhra Pradesh, which improved significantly from fifth place in 2022 to second.
• Telangana held steady at third place, while Kerala moved up to fourth. In contrast, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal remained at the bottom of the rankings, at 17th and 18th positions respectively, showing little change from the previous report

Overall Ranking of Large and Mid-sized States

Follow Up Question

1.The Amitava Roy Committee is related to

(a) Monterey Policy Committee reforms

(b) Digital currency

(c) Infrastructure improvement of railways

(d) Prison reform

What are the key objectives of caste count?

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance

Context:

The Union Cabinet has decided that the next Census will include questions on caste to its enumeration of India’s population, for the first time in almost a century. The decision, a reversal of the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP) stance so far, comes ahead of the crucial Bihar elections, and throws up myriad challenges.

Read about:

Caste Census

Benefits of Caste census

Key takeaways:

Has India Ever Collected Caste Data?

• Yes, caste has been part of population enumeration in India in the past. When the British began the decennial census in 1881, caste details were included. For the next fifty years, this data was regularly collected, with the 1931 Census being the last time caste-wise information was officially published.
• That census documented 4,147 distinct castes and sub-castes. Although the 1941 Census also gathered such data, it was never made public, likely due to disruptions caused by World War II. After gaining Independence, India chose to omit caste-based data from the census, restricting its scope to include only Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• J.H. Hutton, Census Commissioner for the 1931 census, argued against the notion that collecting caste or religion data would intensify social divisions. He emphasized the need for the census to reflect societal realities, not avoid them.
• While he rejected older British efforts to classify castes in a ranked hierarchy, he opted to categorise them based on occupation. However, this approach overlooked the complexity and evolving nature of caste identities across regions and over time.
• Interestingly, this very 1931 data later became the foundation for reservation policies, including the Mandal Commission's recommendation of a 27% quota for OBCs, based on the census finding that 52% of India’s population fell under the Other Backward Classes category.
• In 2011, the Ministry of Rural Development initiated a Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC), intended to guide policy decisions and welfare schemes. Though partial data was released in 2016, raw caste-wise population figures were not disclosed. Because the caste field was left open-ended, respondents often entered surnames rather than standardized caste names, resulting in the enumeration of over 46 lakh unique caste entries.

Have States Conducted Their Own Caste Surveys?

• Yes, several Indian states have taken the initiative to conduct state-level caste surveys. In 2023, Bihar completed a caste survey under Chief Minister Nitish Kumar, revealing that OBCs and EBCs together made up over 63% of the state's population. This led to renewed demands for greater political and social representation for these communities.
• In Telangana, the Congress Party fulfilled its pre-election promise by conducting a caste survey in 2024, which showed that Backward Classes constituted over 56% of the population. Meanwhile, Karnataka had begun its own caste survey in 2015, during CM Siddaramaiah’s earlier tenure, but the results were only released ten years later, indicating that nearly 70% of the population fell under the OBC category.

How Might This Data Be Used?

• While caste data can certainly support academic research and public policy, its primary political and social implication lies in how it might influence reservation and affirmative action policies. The existing 27% OBC quota is based on projections from the outdated 1931 census. Fresh data could significantly reshape this framework.
• For example, in Karnataka, following the revelation that the OBC population is much larger than earlier believed, there are calls to raise their reservation quota from 32% to 51%. Such developments could lead to challenges to the Supreme Court-imposed 50% ceiling on total reservation, as demands for expanded quotas grow louder across states

 Follow Up Question

1.Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: (UPSC CSE 2019)

1. PVTGs reside in 18 states and one Union Territory.

2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.

3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.

4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4

(d) 1, 3 and 4

Status & significance of massive anti-Naxal op in Telangana-Chhattisgarh border

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Security Issues

Context:

Some 24,000 security personnel have surrounded the Karregutta hills along the Chhattisgarh-Telangana border for what authorities say is a “decisive” operation to “end the menace of Left-Wing Extremism” in Bastar.

Read about:

What is Left-Wing Extremism?

Chattisgarh-Telangana border

Key takeaways:

• The recent large-scale anti-Naxal operation on the Telangana–Chhattisgarh border marks a significant development in India’s ongoing internal security efforts. This area, particularly the dense forest belt straddling the two states, has long been a stronghold of Maoist insurgents, often used as a safe haven and operational base.
• The operation, carried out jointly by the Telangana Greyhounds and security forces from Chhattisgarh, represents both a tactical success and a broader strategic shift in counter-insurgency planning.
• The status of the operation can be seen as a major blow to the Naxal movement in the region. Reports confirm that at least 10 Maoists were killed, including key leaders, and a significant cache of arms and explosives was recovered.
• These developments have disrupted the Maoist chain of command in the area and weakened their capacity to coordinate attacks.
• Moreover, such coordinated strikes by security forces highlight improved inter-state cooperation and intelligence-sharing, which were previously considered weak points in India’s anti-Naxal strategy.
• The significance of the operation goes beyond immediate tactical gains. First, it underscores the state’s resolve to regain control over "liberated zones" where Maoists have operated parallel systems of governance, intimidating local populations and hindering development.
• Second, the success of such operations boosts the morale of security forces and signals to extremist groups that the government is intensifying efforts to eliminate armed rebellion.
• It also has a psychological impact on local communities, instilling greater confidence in state authority and encouraging cooperation with law enforcement.
• Additionally, this operation comes at a time when the presence of Maoists in several parts of India is shrinking. While they still maintain influence in parts of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, and adjoining areas, their ability to wage sustained warfare has diminished significantly.
• Thus, the Telangana-Chhattisgarh operation may accelerate this trend, potentially opening the path for development activities and administrative outreach in long-neglected tribal areas.
• Overall, this anti-Naxal offensive reflects a proactive security posture, improved operational planning, and a narrowing space for insurgency in India’s heartland. However, long-term success will depend not only on military victories but also on addressing the socio-economic grievances that fuel such movements—particularly issues of land rights, tribal welfare, and governance deficits

Follow Up Question

 1.The persisting drives of the government for development of large industries in backward areas have resulted in isolating the tribal population and the farmers who face multiple displacements. With Malkangiri and Naxalbari foci, discussthe corrective strategies needed to win the Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) doctrine affected citizens back into mainstream of social and economic growth. (UPSC 2015)

Line of Control

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS II - International relations

Context:

Pakistani troops violated the ceasefire along several sectors at the Line of Control (LoC) and International Border for the eighth consecutive night on Thursday. The Indian Army has responded to each of these violations in a “calibrated and proportionate manner”

Read about:

Line of Actual Control (LoAc)

India-Pakistan ceasefire

Key takeaways:

The Nature and Evolution of the Line of Control (LoC)

• The ceasefire between India and Pakistan, as it exists today, is more an informal understanding than a formal agreement. Typically, ceasefires between traditional military forces follow the end of active conflict, with both sides holding positions on a clearly defined line that represents their areas of control.
• In the context of India and Pakistan, the most recent formal ceasefire arrangement dates back to December 1971, following their war. This ceasefire line mostly mirrored the earlier "Ceasefire Line" established by the 1949 Karachi Agreement after the first India-Pakistan war. In 1972, the Simla Agreement renamed this line as the "Line of Control" (LoC).
• This new designation did not constitute legal recognition of a border but instead indicated a line both militaries agreed to maintain without affecting either side’s territorial claims.
• Stretching roughly 740 kilometers from the vicinity of Sangam in Kashmir to Point NJ-9842 near the Siachen Glacier, the LoC functions as the practical dividing line between Indian and Pakistani forces.
• In the Jammu region, the LoC transitions into what India regards as the International Border (IB), since India does not stake territorial claims on Pakistani Punjab. Pakistan, however, refers to this area as the "Working Boundary," disputing India’s claim over Jammu and hence considering the border unsettled.
• Over time, the LoC has effectively acted as the de facto border between the two countries. Due to its origins in military conflict, both India and Pakistan primarily deploy regular army troops along this line, in contrast to the IB which is managed by paramilitary forces like India’s Border Security Force and Pakistan Rangers. The LoC is heavily fortified, with significant troop presence and defensive installations.
• Soldiers are tasked with ensuring that no side attempts to alter the status quo—especially since the LoC can shift slightly due to snow accumulation and melting in mountainous regions. They are also responsible for preventing unauthorized crossings, whether by military personnel, militants, or civilians like shepherds.
• This constant military presence, particularly between two nuclear-armed nations with a history of war, keeps the region in a state of high tension. Although a ceasefire was declared in 1972, frequent exchanges of fire, infiltration attempts, and cross-border raids—especially after the Kashmir insurgency began in 1989—have rendered the original agreement obsolete.
• In reality, the ceasefire understanding has been violated repeatedly, with periods of intense fire followed by informal, mutual decisions to restore calm.
• Throughout the 1990s and during later years like 2016–2021, ceasefire violations surged, often exceeding a thousand incidents annually. The 1990s, in particular, have been described by Indian military veterans as a period of virtually unchecked hostility.

The Cycle of Ceasefire Violations

• Violations along the LoC tend to increase during bilateral crises, as each side attempts to impose tactical costs on the other. These incidents range from small arms fire to more significant military actions, such as India’s 2016 surgical strikes targeting terror camps in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
• Sometimes, these violations stem not from high-level political directives but from dynamics specific to the local military situation. These so-called "autonomous military factors," as termed by scholar Happymon Jacob in his book Line on Fire, can include commanders testing the resolve of their counterparts, engaging in retaliatory actions, or trying to boost troop morale.
• For example, a newly posted commander might be challenged by more experienced forces on the other side, leading to exchanges of fire intended to establish dominance or deter future aggression. Unlike some borders that have clear rules of engagement, the LoC operates with informal practices and understandings rather than strict prohibitions on the use of force.
• To manage tensions, both sides rely on established but unofficial mechanisms such as flag meetings between local military leaders and hotline communications between the Directorates General of Military Operations in New Delhi and Rawalpindi. While these methods are useful for de-escalating immediate tensions, they do not guarantee lasting peace or prevent future incidents.
• In essence, the LoC represents a unique kind of border—one where sporadic violence is normalized and stability is maintained not through binding treaties but through an uneasy and ongoing process of mutual monitoring and informal dialogue

Follow Up Question

1.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates  (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020)

A.India and Pakistan

B.India and Afghanistan

C.India and Nepal

D.India and China

Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS II - International relations

Context:

Following the Pahalgam terror attack, which led to the deaths of 26 people last month, India announced multiple measures in response to Pakistan’s role. As part of the strategy to curb financial flows that aid terror activities, it is planning to bring back Pakistan into the ‘grey list’ of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

Read about:

Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

Grey list and black list

Key takeaways:

What is FATF?

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) serves as the global authority on preventing terrorism financing. It oversees an international system aimed at stopping the misuse of financial networks to support terror-related activities.

One of FATF’s key tools is its “grey list” – a watchlist of countries that are under close observation due to their insufficient efforts in tackling money laundering and terror financing. Nations such as Nepal, Lebanon, South Africa, Syria, and Vietnam are currently on this list.

How Do Countries Get on or Off the Grey List?

• To avoid grey or blacklisting, countries must adhere to FATF’s established standards. The organization performs regular evaluations to ensure compliance. If a nation fails to meet these obligations, it risks being blacklisted.
• Pakistan, for instance, was added to the grey list in June 2018 after pledging to improve its Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorist Financing (AML/CFT) mechanisms.
• By October 21, 2022, FATF acknowledged that Pakistan had taken significant steps to improve its systems and fulfill the conditions laid out in action plans from 2018 and 2021, leading to its removal from the list.
• India responded by stating that FATF’s oversight had compelled Pakistan to act against known terrorists, including individuals linked to the 2008 Mumbai attacks. However, India also emphasized the need for Pakistan to maintain consistent, verifiable, and lasting measures to curb terrorism from its territory.
• According to the Pakistani newspaper Dawn, delisting would enhance Pakistan’s international reputation and signal to the world that its financial system is no longer at risk of enabling terrorist funding.
• Research supports this view, indicating that countries on the grey list face challenges attracting international financial partnerships and investments, as global institutions often factor FATF’s assessments into their decisions
•  To initiate a nomination process demanding a ‘grey list’ status for Pakistan, India would require the support of other FATF member countries. India is also considering raising objections against Pakistan at the upcoming meeting of the board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in May

Follow Up Question

1.Consider the following statements regarding the Financial Action Task Force (FATF):

1. FATF is an inter-governmental body established in 1989 to combat money laundering, terrorist financing, and other related threats to the international financial system.

2. Countries placed on the FATF grey list face immediate economic sanctions from the United Nations.

3. Removal from the FATF grey list indicates that a country has addressed strategic deficiencies in its Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorist Financing (AML/CFT) regime.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

How can India tap its natural hydrogen potential?

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Environment & Ecology

Context:

For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations for energy independence and a pledge to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of natural hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity. In an increasingly volatile world where national sovereignty, economic stability, and energy security become inseparable, tapping into this naturally occurring commodity could go a long way toward enhancing India’s strategic autonomy.

Read about:

Natural Hydrogen

Indian Solar PV mission

Key takeaways:

• India’s demand for hydrogen is expected to rise sharply from six million tonnes annually in 2020 to more than 50 million tonnes per year by 2070, in alignment with its net-zero emissions goal.
• A preliminary academic study, based on models of global geologic hydrogen availability, estimates that India might possess around 3,475 million tonnes of naturally occurring hydrogen.
• If this projection holds true, it could significantly reduce the need for industrial hydrogen production by shifting focus to tapping into natural hydrogen sources, potentially accelerating decarbonisation at reduced costs.
• Following recent discoveries of natural hydrogen in the Andaman region, it is crucial for stakeholders to develop indicative estimates that can guide policymakers and attract investor interest.
• Conducting a thorough geological assessment is vital. Such a study should consider the nature and distribution of source rocks, the presence of seals and traps, the size and commercial viability of potential accumulations, the risk of losses during migration, and the ease of access for exploration.

Key Challenges

• Extracting and exploring natural hydrogen poses several difficulties, including technological, economic, logistical, and safety concerns. The foremost challenge lies in accurately detecting and assessing underground hydrogen reserves—an area where methods are not yet as refined as those used in the oil and gas sector.
• Developing cost-effective and efficient extraction technologies tailored to hydrogen’s unique characteristics, such as its low molecular weight and high diffusivity, is equally important. Research is ongoing to create solutions that yield low-cost hydrogen.
• Safety remains a critical issue due to hydrogen’s high reactivity and permeability. Appropriate safety measures must include the use of hydrogen-resistant materials, including specialized metal coatings, advanced cement mixtures, and rubber fillers that prevent degradation.

Way Forward for India

• India can take cues from earlier initiatives like the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment (SRRA) Project under the National Solar Mission—supported by the German Agency for International Cooperation and the National Institute of Wind Energy—which established an extensive network of monitoring stations. A similar collaborative public-private framework can be designed to locate and evaluate potential hydrogen-rich regions.
• In the U.S., the ARPA-E program is funding innovative projects that go beyond finding trapped hydrogen. These initiatives explore techniques such as injecting water into certain rock types to generate hydrogen, or combining water with dissolved carbon dioxide to facilitate both hydrogen production and carbon capture through mineralization.
• India’s Oil and Gas sector, in collaboration with the Directorate General of Hydrocarbons, can reassess existing rock samples and consider drilling more exploratory wells, backed by financial support through grants or low-interest capital.
• Moreover, parts of the current natural gas pipeline infrastructure might be adaptable for hydrogen transport, subject to necessary safety upgrades. Developing cost-efficient, large-scale storage solutions—especially underground—will be essential.
• While natural hydrogen holds the promise of lower production costs, the broader economic viability depends on the ability to locate sizable and accessible reserves, reduce extraction expenses, and build necessary infrastructure.
• Focused exploration in high-potential zones, advancing cost-effective technologies, and establishing clear regulatory frameworks will be key to attracting investment and fostering a robust market

Follow Up Question