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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on March 06, 2025
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A brief history of the Russia-Ukraine war
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains Examination: GS II - International relations
Context:
The Ukraine conflict has witnessed dramatic developments in recent weeks. U.S. President Donald Trump has brought in a 180-degree shift in U.S’s policy towards the war. Disagreements between Kyiv and Washington on how to end the war have led to an unprecedented public spat between Ukraine’s President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Mr. Trump in the Oval Office, following which the U.S. paused all military aid for the war-torn European nation
Read about:
U.S.’s policy on Ukraine and NATO
Russia - Ukraine War
Key Takeaways:
The war in Ukraine has seen significant changes in recent weeks. U.S. President Donald Trump has taken a completely different approach to America’s stance on the conflict. Disagreements between Kyiv and Washington over how to end the war led to a rare public dispute between Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Trump in the Oval Office. Shortly afterward, the U.S. suspended all military aid to Ukraine. Within a day, Zelenskyy expressed regret over the disagreement and stated that Ukraine was open to a partial truce and working with Trump towards a lasting peace. As the geopolitical landscape shifts rapidly, Europe appears unprepared, while Russia remains observant as the conflict persists.
Origins of the War
When Russian President Vladimir Putin launched the invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, he likely anticipated a swift victory. Western nations, including the U.S., also expected a quick resolution and evacuated their embassies in Kyiv before the war began. However, Ukraine, armed with Western weapons, managed to prevent an early Russian victory. In response, the U.S. under the Biden administration adopted a dual strategy—imposing heavy sanctions on Russia to weaken its economy and military while supplying Ukraine with advanced weaponry. The strategy initially proved effective. By September 2022, Russian forces had retreated from Kharkiv Oblast in the northeast, and in November, they withdrew from Kherson city and parts of Mykolaiv in the south.
Despite these setbacks, Russia escalated its commitment to the war. Putin formally annexed four Ukrainian regions—Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, and Kherson—and announced partial military mobilization. The Kremlin’s message was clear: Russia was prepared for a prolonged conflict. Economically, Russia shifted its focus to Asia, with major markets such as China and India helping to counterbalance the impact of Western sanctions.
Current Situation on the Battlefield
By 2023, the momentum of the war began shifting in Russia’s favor. Russian forces captured Soledar in January and Bakhmut in May after prolonged battles. By 2024, Russia intensified its offensives, securing Avdiivka in February, Krasnohorivka in September, and Vuhledar in October. Ukraine struggled to reclaim lost territories and its much-anticipated counteroffensive in June 2023, despite the use of advanced Western weapons, ultimately failed against Russia’s fortified defenses.
In August 2024, Ukraine launched a surprise attack, seizing around 1,000 square kilometers of Russian territory in the Kursk region. The objective was to divert Russian troops from eastern Ukraine, where they were advancing. However, Russia did not take the bait and continued pushing forward in the east, targeting Ukraine’s weaker defenses. By the end of 2024, Russian forces had gained an estimated 4,168 square kilometers of territory in Ukraine and parts of Russia’s Kursk region. In January 2025, Russian troops took control of Velyka Novosilka and portions of Toretsk, while also attempting to encircle Pokrovsk.
Although Ukraine has intensified its missile and drone strikes deep into Russian territory and the Black Sea, it has struggled to gain an advantage on the battlefield for over two years.
Trump’s Shift in U.S. Policy on Ukraine
During his presidential campaign, Trump pledged to bring a swift end to the conflict. After assuming office in January, he moved quickly to implement his plan. U.S. Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth informed the Ukraine Defense Contact Group—an alliance of 57 countries and the EU that was created to support Kyiv—that Ukraine would not be granted NATO membership. He also stated that the U.S. would not provide security guarantees to Ukraine, and any European assurances would not fall under NATO’s collective defense policy.
Shortly after Hegseth’s remarks, Trump spoke with Putin over the phone. This was followed by two rounds of direct negotiations between Russia and the U.S. Trump appears determined to reset U.S.-Russia relations.
One possible explanation for this shift is that the U.S. no longer considers Russia a major threat. This marks a departure from the post-World War II transatlantic consensus and a return to an earlier strategy—offshore balancing—where America relies on its geographical advantages and avoids deep military entanglements. From this perspective, China is viewed as the primary challenger to U.S. global dominance, and a Sino-Russian alliance could pose a serious risk. To prevent this, Washington may be seeking to repair ties with Moscow—similar to how former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger leveraged the Sino-Soviet split in the 1970s to improve U.S.-China relations. Under this grand strategy, Ukraine becomes a secondary concern. Trump believes Ukraine cannot defeat Russia, even with American support, and wants Kyiv to accept the terms of a U.S.-Russia agreement to end the war.
European Reactions to the Changing U.S. Approach
Europe appears uncertain about how to respond to these developments. When NATO membership was promised to Ukraine in 2008 under U.S. President George W. Bush, both Germany and France were hesitant. Following Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its backing of separatists in eastern Ukraine, Germany and France helped broker the Minsk Agreements in an effort to establish peace. However, the U.S. did not fully support these accords and instead continued to provide military assistance to Ukraine.
Since the start of the full-scale war in 2022, European nations have faced severe economic consequences. The destruction of the Nord Stream pipeline—reportedly at the hands of Ukrainian forces, according to American media—severed a key energy link between Russia and Germany. The loss of cheap Russian gas contributed to a cost-of-living crisis and de-industrialization across Europe, fueling political unrest. Germany, for instance, has been in a prolonged economic downturn, and far-right political movements are gaining traction.
Now, as the U.S. pivots toward direct negotiations with Russia while excluding Ukraine and European nations from the process, Europe faces difficult choices. Although European leaders have held high-level meetings since Trump took office and pledged to increase support for Ukraine, the continent remains divided. Without American backing, Europe lacks the capacity to provide Ukraine with meaningful security guarantees. Additionally, Europe is grappling with broader concerns beyond Ukraine, including the future of NATO, as the Trump administration redefines U.S. foreign and security policy.
The Future of Ukraine
Ukraine has lost over 20% of its territory to Russia, with tens of thousands of soldiers killed and millions of citizens displaced. The country’s economy is in turmoil, and its energy infrastructure has suffered repeated Russian attacks. Ukraine remains heavily reliant on external assistance for weapons, ammunition, and other military supplies. However, manpower shortages on the battlefield have become a growing concern. Trump has remarked that Ukraine is “running low on soldiers,” while U.S. Vice President J.D. Vance has pointed out Russia’s overwhelming numerical advantage.
With limited options, Ukraine is in a precarious position. The U.S. has made it clear that it no longer expects Ukraine to reclaim lost territory—an assessment that even Kyiv and its European allies may reluctantly accept. While Ukraine was promised NATO membership in 2008, the U.S. has now ruled out that possibility. Kyiv has sought alternative security guarantees, but Washington remains hesitant to provide them.
If Ukraine chooses to continue the war, it risks further territorial losses. If it agrees to a settlement, the terms will likely be dictated by both Russia and the U.S. Ultimately, Ukraine finds itself in an unenviable position. History has shown that when great powers engage in proxy wars, smaller nations bear the cost. And when great powers decide to realign their interests, their proxies often find themselves sidelined. Ukraine is now facing that harsh reality
Follow Up Question
1.Critically analyze the shifting geopolitical dynamics in the Russia-Ukraine conflict, particularly in light of the United States' evolving stance under the Trump administration. Discuss the implications of this policy shift on Ukraine, Europe, and global power alignments." (250 words)
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of nationaland international importance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology
Context:
A recent Lancet study has highlighted that India had the second largest population of adults with overweight and obesity after China. The Lancet study examined the historical trends of the global, regional, and national prevalence of adult overweight and obesity from 1990 to 2021 and forecast the future trajectories to 2050
Read about:
Obseity
Seriousness of Obesity
Key takeaways:
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By 2050, more than half of all adults worldwide and about one-third of children and adolescents are expected to be overweight or obese. The report highlights that since 1990, obesity rates have surged globally—by 155.1% among males and 104.9% among females.
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A particularly alarming trend is the sharp rise in obesity among older adolescents, those aged 15 to 24. In young men, the prevalence of overweight or obesity rose from 0.4 crore in 1990 to 1.68 crore in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 2.27 crore by 2050. Among young women, the numbers increased from 0.33 crore in 1990 to 1.3 crore in 2021, with projections suggesting a rise to 1.69 crore by 2050.
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Projections indicate that by 2050, India will have 21.8 crore men and 23.1 crore women who are overweight or obese, bringing the total to approximately 44.9 crore, which would constitute nearly a third of the country's estimated population.
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In India, the prevalence of overweight and obesity among boys increased from 0.46 crore in 1990 to 1.3 crore in 2021 and is projected to reach 1.6 crore by 2050. Among girls, this figure grew from 0.45 crore in 1990 to 1.24 crore in 2021, with estimates suggesting it will rise to 1.44 crore by 2050.
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This data is particularly significant given that India is already grappling with a high burden of non-communicable diseases such as heart disease, strokes, and diabetes. Obesity is a key risk factor contributing to the early onset of these conditions, including Type 2 diabetes in adolescents.
NFHS Data on Obesity in India
The National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-5 (2019-21) reveals that 24% of Indian women and 23% of Indian men are classified as overweight or obese. The proportion of women with a high-risk waist-to-hip ratio stands at 56.7%, while for men, it is 47.7%.
Among individuals aged 15-49 years, obesity affects 6.4% of women and 4.0% of men. Additionally, the percentage of children under five classified as overweight (based on weight-for-height measurements) increased from 2.1% in NFHS-4 (2015-16) to 3.4% in NFHS-5 (2019-21) at the national level
Follow Up Question
1.Consider the following statements about the new proposed definition of obesity:
1. According to the new proposed definition, Body Mass Index is replaced by waist-to-hip ratio to make it more inclusive.
2. It has removed the ‘overweight category’ with ‘pre-clinical obesity’.
3. The Indian category of obesity definition includes stage 1 and stage 2 obesity.
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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Answer (d)
Final Assessment: Considering the evaluations above, none of the statements are entirely correct. Therefore, the correct answer is: (d) None of the above |
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and nternational Importance
For Mains Examination: GS II - Governance
Context:
In 1968, a national education policy (NEP) formulated by the Indira Gandhi-led Congress government had introduced the three-language formula. Centred on a Hindi-English fulcrum, the policy called for teaching a southern language in Hindi-speaking states and a regional language in non-Hindi-speaking states as the third language
Read about:
National Education Policy (NEP) of 2020
What is the “three-language formula”?
Key takeaways:
- The three-language formula has remained a contentious issue for decades. Tamil Nadu opposed it in 1968 and has since adhered to its own two-language system.
- Currently, the DMK-led Tamil Nadu government and the BJP-led Central government are in disagreement over the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which upholds the three-language formula but with more flexibility in language choices. However, the Centre has clarified that no particular language will be enforced on any state.
- Both in 1968 and 2020, the three-language policy aimed to encourage multilingualism. Yet, data from the 2011 Census indicates that in only eight states and union territories does more than half of the population speak more than two languages.
- Nationally, 26.02% of the population is bilingual, while 7.1% speaks three languages. Although bilingualism saw a slight increase from 24.79% in 2001, the percentage of trilingual speakers declined from 8.51%. Between 2001 and 2011, 12 states and UTs experienced a decrease in bilingualism, and 23 recorded a drop in trilingualism.
- Despite maintaining its two-language policy, Tamil Nadu ranked 15th in bilingualism in 2011, with 28.3% of its population speaking two languages. Its trilingual population stood at 3.39%, placing it among the lowest-ranking states.
- Goa led in multilingualism, with 77.21% bilingual and 50.82% trilingual speakers, making it the only state where trilingualism exceeded 50%. Chandigarh (30.51%) and Arunachal Pradesh (30.25%) followed. Other regions with high bilingualism rates included Andaman & Nicobar Islands (67.64%), Arunachal Pradesh (64.03%), Sikkim (63.71%), Nagaland (62.15%), Chandigarh (54.95%), Manipur (54.02%), and Maharashtra (51.1%). The 2011 Census also revealed that Hindi appeared in eight out of the ten most common bilingual language combinations.
- A National Education Policy (NEP) serves as a guiding framework for the country’s education development. The need for such a policy was first recognized in 1964 when Congress MP Siddheshwar Prasad criticized the government for lacking a structured vision for education.
- Consequently, a 17-member Education Commission, led by UGC Chairperson D.S. Kothari, was formed to draft a national education policy, resulting in the adoption of the first NEP in 1968.
- India has had three NEPs so far—the first in 1968 under Indira Gandhi, the second in 1986 under Rajiv Gandhi (revised in 1992 during P.V. Narasimha Rao's tenure), and the third in 2020 under Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
- The NEP primarily serves as a broad framework rather than a mandatory directive. Since education falls under the concurrent list, both the Centre and states have the authority to legislate on it. The government has set a target of 2040 for the complete implementation of NEP 2020
Forest Rights Act, 2006
Key takeaways:
Compensatory Afforestation and Its Mechanism
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The fundamental idea behind compensatory afforestation is that forests, being crucial natural resources that provide various ecological benefits, should not be destroyed. However, due to industrial and developmental needs, forests are often cleared or, as officially stated, "diverted for non-forest purposes."
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Since newly afforested land does not instantly transform into a fully functional forest, there is an inevitable gap where the environmental benefits of the lost forest are absent. These benefits include timber, bamboo, fuelwood, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water retention, and seed dispersal. A newly afforested area requires at least 50 years to provide similar ecosystem services. To account for this interim loss, the law mandates the calculation of the Net Present Value (NPV) of the diverted forest for a 50-year period, which must be compensated by the entity responsible for the diversion.
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The responsibility of afforestation does not lie with the "user agencies," which are typically private entities. Instead, it is undertaken by the state government. However, the financial burden of afforestation, including land acquisition costs, is entirely borne by the user agency. Once the afforestation process is completed, the state government must transfer the land to the forest department for maintenance and protection.
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Therefore, any entity seeking to divert forest land for non-forest purposes must not only finance compensatory afforestation but also pay the NPV and additional charges.
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The Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) was established to manage these funds. The state government collects compensatory afforestation payments and NPV from the user agency and deposits them with the central government. This money is eventually returned to the respective states for afforestation and related projects.
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The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016, formalized this structure by creating a national CAMPA under the central government and state-level CAMPAs for each state and Union Territory. Additionally, Compensatory Afforestation Funds (CAF) were set up at both national and state levels to manage these finances efficiently.
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The concept of compensatory afforestation originated in the 1980s as part of the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which required developers to obtain clearance from the Ministry of Environment before diverting forest land. Over time, this practice became legally institutionalized through Supreme Court rulings, particularly in the landmark Godavarman case during the 1990s and 2000s.
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States are required to deposit the funds collected from user agencies into the national CAF, which later distributes the funds to state-level CAFs based on their entitlements. However, states receive only 90% of their share, while the remaining 10% is retained to cover administrative costs
Forest Rights Act, 2006
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The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (commonly known as the Forest Rights Act, FRA) was enacted to formally acknowledge the traditional rights of tribal and forest-dwelling communities over forest land and resources.
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According to the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, the FRA grants both individual rights, such as self-cultivation and habitation, and community rights, including access to grazing lands, fishing areas, water bodies, and habitat rights for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Additionally, it recognizes the rights of communities to protect, regenerate, conserve, and manage forest resources for sustainable use. The Act also allows the allocation of forest land for developmental projects aimed at fulfilling essential infrastructure needs of tribal communities.
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The Act places the responsibility of conserving biodiversity, wildlife, forests, water sources, and ecologically sensitive areas on the Gram Sabha and rights-holding communities. It also empowers them to prevent any harmful activities that could damage these natural resources or threaten the cultural and ecological heritage of indigenous populations. Furthermore, the FRA strengthens the role of Gram Sabhas by giving tribal communities a significant voice in shaping local policies and development programs that directly impact their lives
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Answer (A)
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Global warming has reached Greenland, with a new study showing that remote high elevations of its ice sheet are facing the warmest decade in the last thousand years.
Read about:
Greenhouse effect
Global Warming
Key takeaways
- Global warming has made its way to Greenland, with a recent study revealing that the remote high-altitude areas of its ice sheet have experienced the warmest decade in the past thousand years. According to research published in the journal Nature, the period from 2001 to 2011 was 1.5 degrees Celsius warmer than the 20th-century average.
- An ice sheet is a vast expanse of glacial ice covering more than 50,000 square kilometers. These sheets hold approximately 99% of the Earth's freshwater and are sometimes referred to as continental glaciers, as noted by National Geographic.
- Currently, only two ice sheets exist on Earth—the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Like other glaciers, ice sheets develop through the accumulation of snow over time.
- As layers of snow build up and undergo partial melting, they compact and harden. Data from NASA satellites indicate that both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have been losing mass since 2002.
- This ice loss is primarily caused by rising temperatures on the Earth's surface and in the oceans. According to NASA, meltwater from these ice sheets has contributed to approximately one-third of the global average sea level rise since 1993.
- Due to its vast size, its role in reflecting solar radiation, and its ability to store freshwater, the Greenland ice sheet plays a crucial role in the global climate system.
- However, the impact of global warming on its central region remains uncertain due to the lack of long-term observational data. Instrument-based air temperature records are often too short to capture significant trends, and while climate models can estimate long-term changes, they tend to struggle with accurately reflecting regional climate variations.
- To better understand Greenland’s past climate, researchers from the Alfred Wegener Institute drilled into the ice sheet to analyze historical climate conditions. The deeper they drilled, the more evidence they found of how past environmental temperatures influenced the ice.
- According to AntarcticGlaciers.org, a knowledge-sharing platform by the University of Cambridge, ice sheets provide a window into the past by preserving records of snowfall, air temperature, and atmospheric composition. By analyzing greenhouse gas concentrations in ice core layers, scientists can compare modern levels of carbon dioxide and methane to historical values and assess their relationship with temperature changes.
- An ice core is a cylindrical sample extracted from an ice sheet or high-altitude glacier. The study highlighted that the ice cores retrieved by the Alfred Wegener Institute researchers were of exceptional length and quality.
- Their analysis allowed them to reconstruct temperature patterns and melting rates in central and northern Greenland from the year 1000 AD up to 2011 with remarkable precision
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Answer (D)
Carbon sequestration refers to the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (COâ‚‚) to mitigate global warming. Several geological formations can serve as potential sites for long-term carbon storage.
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- A regional party in Meghalaya, which is set to hold elections soon, has suggested that bringing the State under Article 371 could facilitate the resumption of rat-hole coal mining, which has been banned since April 2014.
- Article 371 of the Indian Constitution provides special provisions and powers to certain states. Strong Pillar Kharjana, a candidate from the Voice of the People Party (VPP), cited Nagaland as an example to advocate for Article 371 for Meghalaya.
- Under Article 371A, Nagaland enjoys special protections regarding land, resources, and customary laws, preventing external interference.
- Mr. Kharjana, who is contesting from the Mawkhar-Pynthorumkhrah constituency in the Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC), pointed out that elections for both KHADC and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (JHADC) are scheduled for February 21. Each council has 30 seats, with 29 elected members, while one is nominated by the Governor.
- Mr. Kharjana claimed that rat-hole mining continues in Nagaland, and Article 371A prevents the National Green Tribunal (NGT) from intervening in coal mining activities there.
- In contrast, the NGT banned rat-hole mining in Meghalaya in 2014, a decision later upheld by the Supreme Court and extended to other northeastern states. While the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution grants district councils the authority to enact laws related to land allocation, social customs, and forests, Paragraph 12A states that State laws take precedence over district council laws in case of conflicts
Rat-Hole Mining: An Overview
- Rat-hole mining is a traditional and unscientific method of coal extraction, primarily practiced in northeastern India, especially in Meghalaya. This technique involves digging narrow, vertical shafts that are only a few feet in diameter. Once the shaft reaches the coal seam, horizontal tunnels are created to extract the coal. These tunnels are often so small that only one person, usually a child or a thin adult, can enter at a time—hence the term "rat-hole" mining.
- This method is mainly used because Meghalaya has a unique coal deposit structure, where the coal seams are thin and scattered deep underground. Large-scale, mechanized mining is not feasible in such terrain, making rat-hole mining the most convenient option for locals. It provides quick profits and employment opportunities, particularly for tribal communities who own the land and see mining as a key source of livelihood.
- However, rat-hole mining is highly controversial due to its severe environmental and human risks. The process is unregulated, leading to dangerous working conditions. Miners often work without protective gear, and accidents like tunnel collapses and flooding are common. Moreover, child labor is frequently reported in these mines, making it a human rights concern.
- Environmentally, this method has caused severe damage to Meghalaya’s ecosystem. The absence of scientific mining practices leads to massive deforestation, soil erosion, and the contamination of local water bodies. A major issue is acid mine drainage, where toxic chemicals from exposed coal interact with water, making rivers and streams highly acidic and unfit for human consumption or agriculture.
- Recognizing these dangers, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned rat-hole mining in Meghalaya in 2014. The Supreme Court later upheld this ban, extending it to other northeastern states.
- However, reports suggest that illegal mining continues, often with political and administrative complicity. Many argue that rat-hole mining is deeply linked to local livelihoods, while others stress the need for safer and more sustainable alternatives.
- Despite repeated calls for regulation, rat-hole mining remains a contentious issue, caught between economic necessity and environmental sustainability
| Subject | Topic | Description |
| Polity | Fundamental Duties | Fundamental Duties |
| Environment & Ecology | Biodiversity in India | Biodiversity |
| History | Modern Indian History | Constitutional Development in India |
| History | Modern Indian History | Peasants, Tribal and other movements |
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