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Indian State Forest Report and Retail Inflation and its significance for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) , Pleas challenging the Waqf Act , Extraterrestrial life important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for April 18, 2025 |
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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on April 18, 2025
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Rapid development, shrinking green cover
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Environment & Ecology
Context:
The Supreme Court has said it “will go out of the way to protect the environment” as it questioned the Telangana government for justifying the large-scale felling of trees across 100 acres of land abutting the University of Hyderabad.
Read about:
Indian State Forest Report
Unclassed Forest
Key takeaways:
Forest Cover in India
- Forests in India are more than just clusters of trees—they form the backbone of livelihoods for millions and hold immense ecological, economic, and cultural importance.
- They are key indicators of environmental health, which is why India has long aspired to maintain forest cover over 33% of its total land area.
- However, as per the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the current forest and tree cover stands at approximately 8,27,357 sq. km—about 24% of the nation's geographical area.
- Although there has been a marginal rise in overall greenery compared to previous reports, the findings point to shrinking eco-sensitive zones, mangroves, and natural forests.
- A troubling trend is the replacement of biodiverse natural forests with single-species plantations, which threatens both ecological resilience and biodiversity. The credibility of the ISFR has also been questioned due to its inclusion of plantations like tea, coffee, and coconut under the definition of forests.
Drivers of Deforestation
- The degradation of forests is closely linked with rapid industrialisation and expanding urban areas. Between 2014–15 and 2023–24, about 1.73 lakh hectares of forests were lost to developmental activities, according to the Union Ministry of Environment.
- In states rich in minerals—such as Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh—mining activities have been the primary cause of deforestation, with over 1 lakh hectares of land diverted for nearly 500 mining projects up to 2018.
- In the northeastern hills, factors like shifting cultivation (Jhum), agricultural expansion, and large-scale logging have severely reduced forest cover, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Nagaland between 2021 and 2023.
- Additionally, the rising frequency of forest fires—exacerbated by human actions and extended dry periods—is another major concern. Climate change further fuels these fires by creating hotter, drier conditions.
- Between November 2023 and June 2024, over 2 lakh incidents of forest fires were recorded by the Forest Survey of India, underlining the urgent need for robust forest protection laws.
Legal Mechanisms for Forest Protection
- India’s legal structure for forest conservation has evolved through colonial and post-independence phases. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 remains a foundational law, though it never explicitly defines a forest. Initially framed to support British control over forests, it curtailed tribal rights and largely overlooked ecological concerns.
- Post-independence, forests were listed under the State List, which led to unregulated exploitation. This trend was countered through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976, transferring forests to the Concurrent List—thus allowing central oversight.
- The Forest Conservation Act (FCA) of 1980, renamed in 2023 as Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, made central government approval mandatory for diverting forest land for non-forest purposes.
- This law was further reinforced by acts such as the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Environment Protection Act (1986), Biological Diversity Act (2002), Forest Rights Act (2006), and Compensatory Afforestation Act (2006).
Development of Forest Policy
- The country’s forest policy began with the National Forest Policy of 1894, which focused on state control rather than ecological balance. Post-independence, the 1952 Forest Policy shifted the narrative toward environmental stability and the welfare of forest-dependent communities, recommending that one-third of the country’s land be under forest cover.
- This vision was expanded upon by the 1988 National Forest Policy, which emphasized conservation and community involvement through programmes like Joint Forest Management.
- Several initiatives followed—such as the National Afforestation Programme, Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme, Green India Mission, and National Agroforestry Policy (2014)
Follow Up Question
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Answer (D)
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Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology
Context:
Almost every time there is progress in the world of Artificial Intelligence (AI), there is discussion on Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), which is broadly defined as AI that can match human intelligence in various tasks.
Read about:
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
Applications of Artificial Intelligence
Key takeaways:
- Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) refers to a type of artificial intelligence that has the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across a wide range of tasks—just like a human being.
- Unlike today’s AI systems, which are designed for specific tasks such as facial recognition, language translation, or playing chess, AGI would possess the flexibility and adaptability to perform any intellectual task that a human can do.
- The key idea behind AGI is generalization. Current AI, often referred to as narrow or weak AI, can outperform humans in very specialized domains, but it lacks the common sense, reasoning ability, and contextual understanding that humans use to navigate the world.
- For instance, while an AI chatbot might be great at answering questions about a specific topic, it wouldn’t be able to switch contexts and start solving a physics problem or understand a joke in the same way a human could.
- AGI, on the other hand, aims to bridge that gap by enabling machines to transfer learning from one domain to another and apply knowledge in a flexible, human-like manner.
- Imagine an AGI as a system that could one moment help you write a poem, then solve a complex mathematical problem, and then drive a car—all without needing to be retrained for each new task. It would not only process information but also reason, plan, learn from experience, and even potentially possess emotional intelligence.
- However, AGI remains largely theoretical at this point. Researchers are still debating how best to achieve it, and there are significant challenges both technical and ethical. Questions about control, safety, the role of consciousness, and the impact on human society are central to the ongoing discussion around AGI.
- In short, AGI represents the vision of machines with true intelligence—machines that think, learn, and adapt just like us, not merely simulate understanding in narrow areas
Applications of Artificial intelligence
- Artificial Intelligence (AI) has found its way into nearly every aspect of modern life, transforming how we work, communicate, travel, shop, and even make decisions. Its applications are vast and continue to expand as technology evolves, making AI one of the most significant drivers of change in the 21st century.
- One of the most visible applications of AI is in healthcare, where it helps in diagnosing diseases, analyzing medical images like X-rays and MRIs, and even predicting patient outcomes.
- AI-powered systems can process vast amounts of clinical data to assist doctors in making faster and more accurate diagnoses. For example, algorithms can now detect signs of diseases like cancer in imaging scans more effectively than some human experts.
- Additionally, AI is being used in drug discovery, where it can rapidly analyze millions of compounds to identify potential treatments, dramatically speeding up the process of finding new medicines.
- In the field of transportation, AI is the backbone of technologies like self-driving cars and traffic management systems. Autonomous vehicles use AI to perceive their surroundings, make decisions in real-time, and navigate safely.
- AI also helps optimize traffic flow in smart cities by analyzing data from traffic cameras and sensors, thereby reducing congestion and improving urban mobility.
- Finance is another domain where AI plays a transformative role. It is used in fraud detection by identifying unusual patterns in transactions that might indicate criminal activity.
- AI algorithms also power robo-advisors, which provide investment advice based on user profiles and market trends. Moreover, banks use AI for credit scoring, loan approvals, and automating customer service through chatbots.
- In education, AI is creating personalized learning experiences by adapting content and pace according to the individual needs of students. It also assists teachers by automating administrative tasks like grading and attendance. Virtual tutors and AI-powered learning platforms can provide students with additional support outside the classroom.
- AI is also revolutionizing entertainment and media. Streaming platforms like Netflix and Spotify use AI to recommend shows, movies, and music based on user preferences and behavior. In video games, AI is used to create intelligent and responsive non-player characters (NPCs), enhancing the gaming experience.
- In agriculture, AI helps farmers monitor crop health using drone imagery and satellite data. It can predict weather patterns, optimize irrigation, and detect pest infestations early, thus improving productivity and reducing losses.
- In the workplace, AI automates routine tasks, allowing humans to focus on more complex and creative aspects of their jobs. From virtual assistants that schedule meetings and respond to emails, to complex AI systems that analyze business trends and customer behavior, AI is reshaping how organizations operate and make decisions
1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
3. Disease diagnosis
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
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Answer (b)
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The petitioners have highlighted several contentious elements within the Waqf Act of 2025.
Removal of ‘Waqf by Use’ Doctrine:
One of the central concerns is the elimination of the long-standing principle known as "Waqf by use." This doctrine allowed land that had been used continuously for Islamic religious or charitable functions—such as for mosques or graveyards—to be recognized as Waqf, even if it had not been formally registered.- The 2025 legislation ends this recognition for any future dedications, limiting its applicability solely to properties already listed as Waqf.
- Furthermore, the law stipulates that in cases of dispute, or where land is claimed to belong to the government, such property will no longer qualify under the 'Waqf-by-use' category.
- The government has defended this change by pointing to frequent misuse, arguing that land is often wrongly claimed under the guise of Waqf. However, critics worry that this change could endanger the status of numerous longstanding religious sites that have historically served as mosques or burial grounds but were never formally registered.
- Petitioners contend that registering Waqf-by-use land is inherently difficult due to its informal, centuries-old nature. Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud appeared sympathetic to this view, questioning how land used for religious purposes for several hundred years could reasonably be expected to be registered. He acknowledged the complexity of the issue, suggesting that while some misuse may occur, there are also legitimate cases of Waqf-by-use.
- Additionally, the concept of Waqf by use has a long history of judicial recognition, including affirmation in the Supreme Court’s notable 2019 Ayodhya judgment.
District Collector’s Authority:
Another controversial clause grants district collectors the power to identify land, currently being used as Waqf, as government-owned. If a collector makes such a declaration, the land in question would no longer be treated as Waqf property unless and until a court rules otherwise.- This authority, outlined in a proviso to Section 3(c) of the Act, potentially changes the legal status of Waqf land without prior judicial determination.
- While this provision has not yet been stayed, the Supreme Court took note of the Centre’s assurance that the legal nature of Waqf properties would remain unchanged until resolved by a court.
Inclusion of Non-Muslims on Waqf Boards:
- The petitioners also challenged the legality of allowing non-Muslims to be appointed to Waqf boards and councils, arguing that such provisions violate Articles 26(b), 26(c), and 26(d) of the Constitution. These articles guarantee religious communities the right to manage their religious affairs, possess and manage property, and do so in accordance with the law.
- The government, defending the provision, stated that the inclusion of non-Muslims would not interfere with the community’s decision-making power. However, the petitioners countered that even a single non-Muslim appointee would be unacceptable in the context of religious autonomy.
- The Bench questioned the legality of this inclusion, with the Chief Justice asking whether Parliament had ever allowed members of a different faith to serve on religious endowment boards of another community. In a pointed query to the Solicitor General, the CJI asked whether this policy would now extend to permitting Muslims on Hindu endowment boards.
- The Court hinted that this clause could be stayed and recorded the Centre’s assurance that any such appointments made by a State government or the Delhi administration could be rendered invalid.
Applicability of the Limitation Act:
Senior advocate Kapil Sibal also criticized a provision of the 2025 Act that applies the Limitation Act to Waqf properties. The Limitation Act restricts the time frame within which legal claims—such as those related to land encroachment—can be filed.- Petitioners argue that this may hinder the ability of Waqf institutions to reclaim properties lost to unauthorized occupation, especially when the land has been in long-term use without formal claims being made
1.With reference to the Waqf Act of 2025, consider the following statements:
-
The concept of "Waqf by use" continues to apply for all future dedications, whether registered or not.
-
Under the 2025 Act, if a district collector declares Waqf land as government land, it loses its Waqf status until decided otherwise by a court.
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The Act allows for the inclusion of non-Muslims in Waqf Boards and Councils.
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The Limitation Act is not applicable to claims involving Waqf properties under the 2025 law.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
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Answer (b)
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Scientists find potential biosignatures in faraway exoplanet
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology
Context:
The discovery of signals indicating the presence of sulphur-containing gases in a far-away planet has sparked fresh excitement over the possibility of extraterrestrial life, although scientists involved in the discovery say it is too early to make definitive claims
Read about:
Extraterrestrial life
Exoplanets
Key takeaways:
- On Earth, certain gases are produced as a result of metabolic activity and the decomposition of microscopic plant-like organisms in marine environments. This observation has led researchers to speculate that K2-18b might host a warm ocean — a setting resembling early Earth, where life is believed to have emerged around 3.5 to 4 billion years ago.
- Since its identification in 2015, K2-18b has attracted considerable interest from astrobiologists. The planet is nearly nine times the mass of Earth and orbits a star that is both smaller and cooler than our Sun. Importantly, K2-18b is located within its star's "habitable zone," where conditions could allow liquid water to exist.
- Back in 2019, observations from the Hubble Space Telescope revealed signs of water vapour in the planet’s atmosphere. More recently, data from the James Webb Space Telescope — interpreted by the same team — has shown potential indicators of methane and carbon dioxide, which, on Earth, are associated with biological processes. These findings are intriguing, but not conclusive.
- The detection of such gases on distant planets — although biologically significant on Earth — does not automatically indicate the presence of life elsewhere. Rather, it highlights the planet as a candidate for further scientific exploration.
- Lead researcher Nikku Madhusudhan acknowledged that while dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is a recognized biosignature, its presence on K2-18b could also stem from unknown chemical or physical processes. He emphasized the possibility that not all observed phenomena may be explained by current scientific knowledge.
- The discovery of water, regarded as vital for sustaining life, tends to generate excitement when found on other worlds. Water in various forms has been identified in several locations across and beyond the solar system, yet none have demonstrated the capacity to support life as we know it.
- In fact, planets like Mars and Venus, as well as exoplanets, have at times exhibited gas signatures that spark curiosity about potential habitability. Still, these signals have not amounted to concrete proof of extraterrestrial life.
- Nonetheless, the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. The scientific search for alien life is relatively new, only a few decades old. A dedicated discipline, astrobiology, has since emerged to investigate possible life forms beyond Earth.
- In the absence of direct proof, the most compelling support for the existence of alien life is statistical. Even if life began on Earth through a highly improbable event, the immense number of planets — estimated in the trillions — across the universe makes it statistically likely that similar events could have occurred elsewhere. Some of these instances may have taken place on planets close enough to be detectable by humans.
- This statistical reasoning underpins the Drake Equation, a theoretical model proposed by astronomer Frank Drake. It attempts to estimate how many intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations could exist within our galaxy that are capable of communication.
- The equation factors in variables such as the average rate of star formation, the proportion of stars with planetary systems, the number of potentially habitable planets per system, and the likelihood of life and intelligence developing on those planets.
- Because many of these inputs are uncertain, the equation’s outcome ranges widely — from suggesting that humanity is alone in the universe to predicting the existence of millions of intelligent civilizations. As more astronomical data becomes available, the Drake Equation continues to be refined
Follow Up Question
1.With reference to exoplanets, consider the following statements:
-
Exoplanets are planets that orbit stars outside our solar system.
-
The habitable zone around a star refers to the region where liquid water can exist on a planet's surface.
-
K2-18b is an exoplanet located in the habitable zone and has shown signs of atmospheric gases such as methane and dimethyl sulfide.
-
The James Webb Space Telescope is incapable of detecting atmospheric components of exoplanets.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 3 and 4 only
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Answer (a)
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Great Indian Bustard conservation efforts struggle as numbers dwindle to 2 in Karnataka
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains Examination: GS III - Guidelines to safegaurd Great Indian Bustard (GIB)
Context:
Despite the Karnataka government's efforts to protect the endangered Great Indian Bustard (GIB) by establishing a sanctuary in Siruguppa, Ballari district, the bird’s population continues to decline. Once abundant in the region, only two GIBs remain in Karnataka, down from six earlier this year.
Read about:
What is Great Indian Bustard?
Conservation of Great Indian Bustard
Key takeaways:
- Despite the Karnataka government's efforts to safeguard the endangered Great Indian Bustard (GIB) by creating a sanctuary in Siruguppa, Ballari district, the species' population continues to decline. Once abundant in the area, only two GIBs remain in Karnataka, a decrease from six earlier this year.
- In 2023, the state government designated a 14-square-kilometer forest area in Siraguppa taluk, Ballari district, as a GIB sanctuary. The Karnataka Mining Environment Restoration Corporation (KMERC) launched a special conservation project, dedicating Rs 24 crore to revitalize the GIB population across 24 villages where these birds have been observed.
- The GIB population is rapidly decreasing due to habitat loss across various states, bringing the species dangerously close to extinction, with fewer than 150 individuals remaining in the wild since 2018, most of which are in Rajasthan.
- The GIB is listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. While GIB numbers are dwindling, the species was once plentiful in the region. The state’s grasslands provide a suitable habitat for the birds, but conservation efforts are needed to maintain these grasslands and limit activities such as tree planting and construction.
- A five-member committee overseeing the breeding center project visited the GIB breeding center at Rajasthan's Desert National Park to better understand the requirements of such a facility, according to Arun SK, the wildlife warden of Ballari. Experts from Dehradun are expected to collaborate with the Karnataka forest department on this initiative.
- Wildlife enthusiasts report that only two GIBs — one male and one female — have recently been spotted in the Siraguppa sanctuary. The decline in GIBs has led forest department officials to take urgent measures, including geo-tagging the birds, artificially incubating eggs, reintroducing young birds to the wild, raising awareness among local communities, and establishing a research center in Ballari district.
- The Ballari division of the forest department has sought state government approval to GPS-tag the two GIBs recently sighted in Siruguppa and its surrounding areas. Additionally, CCTV cameras have been installed to monitor the birds’ movements along the Karnataka-Andhra Pradesh border continuously.
- Ballari Deputy Conservator of Forests (DCF) Sandeep Suryavamshi mentioned that geo-tagging is an effective way to track the GIBs’ movements, though the department is still considering its implementation.
- While Siraguppa is not officially a sanctuary, the forest department protects the 14 sq km area because it hosts GIBs.
- Trenches have also been dug around the area to prevent cattle intrusion, and it’s suggested that the birds may have migrated to the Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, 100 km away. Currently, Karnataka’s GIB population is the smallest in India, confined to Siruguppa. According to Ballari Range Forest Officer Girish Kumar, five to six GIBs were seen five months ago, but now only two remain, likely due to climate-related migration, with hopes they will return.
- The state government has allocated Rs 6 crore to build a research center in Siruguppa and explore GPS-tagging and artificial breeding. Local communities, farmers, and schoolchildren have been involved in raising awareness, which has significantly reduced poaching.
- The Karnataka Forest Department plans to acquire 1,000 hectares for afforestation under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority and will fence the area to reduce human-wildlife interaction.
- Although Karnataka's current GIB population is too small to establish a captive founder population, there is potential to reintroduce captive-bred birds from Rajasthan if grassland habitats are secured
Follow up Question
1.Which of the following statements about the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) is/are correct?
- The Great Indian Bustard is classified as ‘Endangered’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.
- The majority of the remaining Great Indian Bustard population is found in Rajasthan.
- Habitat loss is a significant factor contributing to the decline of the Great Indian Bustard population in India.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
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Answer (b)
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National Investigation Agency (NIA)
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS II - Governance
Context:
More than 16 years after the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks, Tahawwur Rana, one of the key conspirators, was finally extradited to India from the US to face trial.
Read about:
What is the National Investigation Agency (NIA)?
What is the India-US extradition treaty?
Key takeaways:
-
The India-United States extradition treaty, signed in June 1997, laid down a formal legal structure to facilitate the transfer of individuals accused or convicted of serious crimes in either nation.
-
For an offence to qualify for extradition under this treaty, it must be punishable by more than one year of imprisonment in both countries.
-
The treaty excludes political offences from extradition. However, certain acts—including the murder or intentional attack on a Head of State or their family, hijacking, sabotage in aviation, attacks on internationally protected persons, and hostage-taking—are explicitly not classified as political offences.
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By 2023, India had formal extradition treaties in place with 48 nations and extradition arrangements with 12 additional countries.
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Tahawwur Hussain Rana, an associate of Lashkar-e-Taiba operative David Coleman Headley, was taken into custody by the National Investigation Agency (NIA) immediately upon his arrival, following the completion of required legal procedures. A medical check was also conducted at the airport.
-
Rana, a Pakistani-Canadian national and former member of the Pakistan Army Medical Corps, is accused of providing essential logistical support to the perpetrators of the 2008 Mumbai attacks. He had been arrested in Chicago in October 2009, nearly a year after the incident.
-
The NIA stated that it had “successfully secured the extradition of Tahawwur Hussain Rana, one of the key planners behind the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks,” after years of coordinated and persistent efforts to ensure he faces justice in India.
-
Rana’s extradition was announced two months after then-U.S. President Donald Trump, standing alongside Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the White House, declared: “Today, I am pleased to announce that my administration has approved the extradition of one of the plotters of the horrific Mumbai terrorist attack. He will now return to India to face justice.”
1.Which of the following statements regarding the National Investigation Agency (NIA) is/are correct?
-
The NIA was established under an Act of Parliament in response to the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks.
-
The NIA has the authority to investigate offences listed under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), even outside India.
-
The NIA functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1 and 3 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
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Answer (A)
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| Subject | Topic | Description |
| Polity | Centre and State relations | Centre State and interstate relations |
| Environment & Ecology | Marine Ecosystem | Marine Ecosystem |
| Economy | Consumer Rights | Consumer Rights |
| Ancient History | Buddhism | Buddhism |
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