INTEGRATED MAINS AND PRELIMS MENTORSHIP (IMPM) 2025 Daily KEY
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Election Commission (EC) and Plastic pollution and its significance for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like Ethanol blending, Buffalo festivals in India, Brahmaptra river and China's bridge on it important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for August 18, 2025 |
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a permanent institution established under the Constitution. It has been entrusted with the authority to supervise, direct, and oversee the entire electoral process for Parliament, State legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
- Initially, the Commission comprised only the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), but it was later expanded to include two additional Election Commissioners. In 2023, Parliament enacted the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, which introduced a new appointment process.
- Under this law, EC members are chosen by a three-member selection panel consisting of the Prime Minister, a Union Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition. Opposition parties criticized this arrangement, arguing that the government could dominate the decision-making by a 2:1 majority.
Why is the ECI under scrutiny?
In recent years, several political parties have accused the Commission of irregularities in voter lists. The Maha Vikas Aghadi (MVA) coalition claimed that Maharashtra’s rolls were artificially inflated with lakhs of new entries between the 2019 Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.- Similar allegations came from the Congress in Haryana and later from the Aam Aadmi Party in Delhi. Amidst these accusations, Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar announced a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Bihar aimed at cleaning up voter rolls, which the Commission said would later be extended nationwide.
- Meanwhile, Congress leader Rahul Gandhi alleged large-scale manipulation in the voter rolls of the Mahadevapura Assembly segment in Karnataka, which he said benefitted the BJP.
- According to him, a six-month investigation by his party revealed duplicate entries, false addresses, and mass registrations from single locations. He demanded that the EC provide all political parties with machine-readable electoral rolls for independent verification.
- However, the Commission declined, citing cyber-security risks—a stance earlier upheld by the Supreme Court in a 2018 petition filed by former Madhya Pradesh CM Kamal Nath.
When was the Bihar revision announced?
On June 24, the ECI ordered a Special Intensive Revision of Bihar’s electoral rolls, just five months before the State Assembly polls. Under this exercise, voters not listed in the 2003 rolls were required to furnish proof of their date and place of birth to confirm citizenship. Those born after 1987 had to additionally provide documents establishing their parents’ birth details.- When the draft rolls were published on August 1, Bihar’s registered electorate had shrunk by 65 lakh—from 7.89 crore to 7.24 crore. The Commission explained that the deletions were due to deaths, migration, duplicate entries, or voters being untraceable.
- This led to petitions from civil society groups, NGOs, and Opposition parties in the Supreme Court, questioning the fairness of the process.
- In an interim ruling on August 14, a bench of Justices Surya Kant and Joymalya Bagchi instructed the EC to release booth-wise details of the 65 lakh excluded names, along with reasons for each deletion—such as death, relocation, duplication, or untraceability.
- The Court also directed that Aadhaar be accepted as valid proof of identity for the inclusion of voters in the rolls
- The Election Commission of India, headed by the Chief Election Commissioner and assisted by Election Commissioners, has been entrusted with wide-ranging powers and responsibilities to ensure free and fair elections in the country.
- Their authority is derived directly from the Constitution, which grants them the power of superintendence, direction, and control over the entire electoral process.
- This means that the Commission not only conducts elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President, but also frames the rules, sets guidelines, and monitors compliance to guarantee the purity of the process.
- In practice, the Commission supervises the preparation and periodic revision of electoral rolls, ensuring that eligible citizens are added and ineligible names are removed.
- It decides the schedule of elections, taking into account law and order, availability of forces, and logistics. It regulates political parties by granting recognition, allotting election symbols, and monitoring adherence to the Model Code of Conduct during campaigns.
- The Commission also has quasi-judicial powers to settle disputes over political party splits and symbol allocations.
- Furthermore, it exercises authority over election expenditure by candidates and parties, laying down spending limits and requiring detailed accounts. The Commission can deploy observers, requisition staff, and coordinate with law enforcement to maintain order during polling.
- In case of malpractice or violence, it has the power to countermand or postpone elections. Importantly, its decisions cannot ordinarily be questioned in courts during the conduct of elections, underscoring its independence.
- Thus, the powers and functions of the Election Commission combine administrative, advisory, and quasi-judicial elements.
- They are designed to ensure that elections in the world’s largest democracy are conducted in a transparent, impartial, and credible manner, thereby strengthening the foundation of India’s representative system
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Answer (D)
Statement 1: The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. Statement 2: Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. Statement 3: Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties. |
Nearly 180 countries have been unable to reach a consensus on creating a binding international treaty to curb plastic pollution, with negotiations in Geneva ending in deadlock. Although the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has already passed a resolution acknowledging the need for such an agreement, only a legally binding treaty would compel nations to adopt concrete measures.
Challenges posed by plastics
Plastic is the defining material of the modern industrial and consumer-driven economy. Chemically, plastics are made of polymers, which may occur naturally—like cellulose and lignin—or be artificially synthesised in laboratories.- Plastics derived from fossil fuels, molded into a wide range of products, have become indispensable to daily life. They are used in critical applications such as aviation and healthcare, as well as in packaging, decorations, and other everyday items.
- Their popularity stems from their versatility and low production cost compared to alternatives like glass or aluminum. However, this same accessibility has made plastic one of the most common pollutants, highlighting the failures of global waste management systems.
- Another problem is the durability of plastics. They are mixtures containing polymers, monomers, and numerous additives. Over 16,000 chemicals can be present in plastic products, and information about the effects of more than 10,000 of them remains scarce.
- A study in Nature highlighted that over 4,000 potentially harmful chemicals may exist in common types of plastics such as PVC, polyethylene, PET, and polyurethane.
- Since most of these substances are synthetic and non-biodegradable, they persist in the environment and can infiltrate ecosystems and living organisms.
- Initially, public attention was on recycling and disposal, but scientific research increasingly points to the risk of harmful chemicals from plastics entering food chains, water systems, and even human bodies.
Evidence of health risks
- Many plastics are made from petrochemical derivatives like ethylene, propylene, and styrene. Their production involves numerous other compounds such as bisphenols, phthalates, PCBs, PBDEs, and PFAS. These substances are widely used in items ranging from food packaging and baby toys to textiles, electronics, cosmetics, and medical products.
- For decades, researchers have examined whether exposure to such chemicals contributes to health problems. Recently, Boston College in the U.S. and the Minderoo Foundation in Australia compiled findings from about 1,100 studies covering 1.1 million people.
- These studies have linked exposure to plastics-related chemicals with altered thyroid function, hypertension, cancers of the kidney and testis, and gestational diabetes. However, most studies are associative rather than conclusive, making it difficult to isolate plastics as the sole cause.
- The gold standard for such evidence is long-term longitudinal research, which tracks individuals over time to directly assess the impact of reduced exposure. Some such studies are underway, but results will take time.
- Meanwhile, microplastics—tiny particles smaller than five millimetres—have been detected in blood, breast milk, the placenta, and even bone marrow. Although their exact health effects are still uncertain, they are suspected of contributing to a variety of disorders.
India’s approach to plastics
- In India, nearly 20 States have banned single-use plastics—items that are the hardest to recycle and have limited reuse potential. The government has also introduced regulatory measures requiring companies to collect back a portion of the plastics they generate.
- Despite these steps, implementation has been weak, and the health risks posed by plastics are yet to receive serious recognition in policy.
- At the global level, India and several other countries have opposed including health-related discussions in the proposed plastics treaty, arguing that such matters should fall under the jurisdiction of the World Health Organization. Consequently, for India, plastics continue to be treated largely as a waste management challenge rather than a broader public health threat
1.In India, ‘extend producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019)
(a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998
(b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999
(c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011
(d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011
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Answer (c)
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach where producers are made responsible for the collection, recycling, and environmentally safe disposal of the products they manufacture once they reach the end of their life cycle. In India, the concept of EPR was formally introduced under the E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011, making manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment accountable for managing the waste generated by their products. |
E20 petrol, which contains 20% ethanol and is now available from Indian refiners, has recently been in the spotlight. India has achieved the ethanol blending target of 20% five years earlier than the deadline set in the National Policy on Biofuels. From a mere 1.5% ethanol blending in 2014, the country has now reached 20% by 2025, largely due to fiscal support to the sugarcane industry. The government highlights multiple benefits of ethanol blending—cutting greenhouse gas emissions, boosting farmers’ income, and reducing dependence on imported crude oil. Yet, its actual environmental benefits remain contested.
Reactions of vehicle owners
Vehicles sold after 2023 carry an E20 sticker, confirming their compatibility with the new fuel. Manufacturers have also issued guidelines for older vehicles. Hero Motocorp, for instance, notes that rubber, elastomer, and plastic parts in existing vehicles may need replacement with E20-compatible materials.
Impact on agriculture
The supply of ethanol from sugarcane has risen dramatically—from 40 crore litres in 2013-14 to nearly 670 crore litres in 2023-24, consuming about 9% of total sugar output. The government claims to have paid farmers over ₹1.20 lakh crore since 2014-15.- But this dependence on sugarcane raises concerns. Producing one tonne of sugarcane requires 60–70 tonnes of water, yet most growing regions fall short of the ideal rainfall range of 1,500–3,000 mm, forcing unsustainable groundwater extraction.
- A 2023 Central Groundwater Board report found that sugarcane-producing districts in Maharashtra overuse groundwater compared to surrounding areas.
- Such practices contribute to land degradation, with the 2021 Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas noting that nearly 30% of India’s land is already degraded.
- The government has tried diversifying ethanol sources. The Food Corporation of India allocated 5.2 million metric tonnes of rice for ethanol in 2024-25, up from less than 3,000 tonnes the year before.
- Similarly, 34% of the corn harvest was diverted for ethanol, forcing India to import nearly 9.7 lakh tonnes of maize—a six-fold increase over the previous year. Despite diversification, the area under sugarcane cultivation in 2024 rose marginally to 57.24 lakh hectares, driven by assured payments under the Fair and Remunerative Pricing system.
- According to OECD-FAO estimates, by 2034, about 22% of India’s sugarcane could be used for ethanol.
- India’s expanding ethanol economy has also drawn U.S. scrutiny. Washington has urged India to ease restrictions on ethanol imports, with the 2025 National Trade Estimate report labelling India’s policy a “trade barrier.” Domestic producers, however, argue that removing restrictions would undermine investments in local ethanol infrastructure.
Link with EV transition
The Petroleum Ministry claims that ethanol blending has cut carbon dioxide emissions by 700 lakh tonnes. However, electric vehicles (EVs) offer much greater decarbonisation potential.- Global examples, like Beijing, show that EV adoption is more effective in reducing urban air pollution. Yet, India lags behind: only 7.6% of vehicles sold in 2024 were electric. To meet its 2030 target of 30% EV penetration, sales must grow by over 22% in the next five years.
- A major bottleneck is India’s dependence on rare earth elements (REEs), most of which are processed in China. Supply disruptions have already affected automakers—Maruti Suzuki scaled down production targets for its upcoming EV, citing delays in securing rare earth magnets.
- Crisil Ratings warned that the shortage coincides with an aggressive phase of EV expansion. While diplomatic engagement with China may ease short-term supply issues, long-term risks remain.
Public opinion and economic impact
- It is unclear whether the government plans to go beyond 20% blending. Minister Hardeep Singh Puri has hinted at the possibility, but the Union government has not confirmed it.
- Public support is limited: a LocalCircles survey of 36,000 people across 315 districts found that two-thirds of petrol vehicle owners oppose mandatory E20, citing reduced mileage and higher maintenance.
- Only 12% backed the policy. While the government admitted to a small decline in engine efficiency, it argued that better engine design and E20-compatible materials could address the problem. Critics, however, point to the absence of consumer benefits.
- Between 2020-21 and 2024-25, major PSUs such as IOC, BPCL, ONGC, Coal India, and GAIL contributed over ₹1.27 lakh crore in dividends to the Centre, accounting for more than 42% of its PSU earnings.
- Despite a 65% drop in oil prices since 2022-23, IOC and BPCL reduced petrol prices by just 2%, even as their dividend payouts soared by 255%. While ethanol blending has saved India over ₹1.40 lakh crore in foreign exchange since 2014, these savings have not been meaningfully passed on to consumers
1.It is possible to produce algae-based biofuels, but what is/are the likely limitation(s) of developing countries in promoting this industry? (UPSC 2017)
1. Production of algae-based biofuels is possible in seas only and not on continents.
2. Setting up and engineering the algae-based biofuels production requires a high level of expertise/technology until the construction is completed.
3. Economically viable production necessitates the setting up of large-scale facilities which may raise ecological and social concerns.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
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Answer (B)
Statement 1: Production of algae-based biofuels is possible in seas only and not on continents. Statement 2: Setting up and engineering the algae-based biofuels production requires a high level of expertise/technology until the construction is completed. Statement 3: Economically viable production necessitates the setting up of large-scale facilities which may raise ecological and social concerns. |
- In India, buffaloes occupy a unique place not only in agriculture and the economy but also in culture and tradition. They are one of the most important domesticated animals, widely valued for their milk, which has a higher fat content than that of cows and is used to make ghee, paneer, curd, and other dairy products central to Indian cuisine.
- Beyond dairy, buffaloes are also used for ploughing fields, transportation in rural areas, and even as draft animals, making them integral to the livelihoods of farming communities.
- Culturally, buffaloes have found symbolic representation in myths, festivals, and local customs. In Hindu mythology, the buffalo demon Mahishasura is central to the story of Goddess Durga’s victory over evil, commemorated during Navaratri and Durga Puja.
- This association gives the animal a place in the religious imagination as a symbol of both power and destructive force.
- In agrarian societies, festivals such as Pola in Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh celebrate bullocks and buffaloes, where the animals are decorated, worshipped, and paraded in recognition of their role in farming.
- Similarly, in Karnataka’s coastal districts, the Kambala buffalo races are a vibrant tradition, combining sport, celebration, and ritual in honour of agrarian deities.
- Buffaloes also embody social and cultural values in rural India. They are considered a form of wealth and security for many households, often gifted in marriages or significant life events as a symbol of prosperity.
- Their presence is closely tied to the rhythms of village life, rituals, and seasonal festivals. Even in folk songs, proverbs, and local art forms, buffaloes are celebrated for their strength, endurance, and contribution to sustenance.
- Thus, buffaloes in India are not merely livestock but an essential part of cultural identity, religious symbolism, and community life, reflecting the deep bond between humans, animals, and the agricultural landscape
- The buffalo features prominently in Indian mythologies, where it carries deep symbolic meanings connected to power, fertility, destruction, and the eternal struggle between good and evil.
- In Hindu mythology, the most famous reference is to Mahishasura, the buffalo demon. Mahishasura, born from the union of a demon and a buffalo, could change between human and buffalo forms.
- His tyranny over gods and humans ended only when Goddess Durga was created by the combined energies of the deities. Durga’s slaying of Mahishasura is celebrated in Navaratri and Durga Puja, making the buffalo a symbol of uncontrolled power and ignorance that is ultimately subdued by divine order.
- This myth also highlights the buffalo as a representation of primal forces of nature, which need to be restrained for cosmic balance.
- In another context, Yama, the Hindu god of death, is described as riding a black buffalo. Here, the buffalo becomes a vehicle of inevitability and mortality, underscoring its association with the darker, inescapable aspects of life. The image of Yama’s buffalo reinforces the link between the animal and death, discipline, and the passage of souls.
- In regional traditions too, buffaloes appear in mythic and ritual narratives. For instance, in tribal and pastoralist communities, buffalo sacrifices are sometimes offered to deities associated with fertility, rain, and protection of crops, symbolizing renewal and prosperity.
- In South Indian folklore, the buffalo is often tied to agrarian myths that portray it as both a giver of wealth through labor and milk, and as an offering to appease gods of the land.
- Thus, in mythology, the buffalo is not merely an agricultural animal but a layered symbol—embodying brute force, fertility, death, and sacrifice. It stands at the crossroads of everyday life and cosmic imagination, showing how deeply animals are woven into India’s religious and cultural worldview
- The Kambala festival is a traditional buffalo racing event celebrated primarily in the coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka. It is a centuries-old rural sport that combines devotion, culture, and entertainment, deeply tied to the agrarian way of life in the region.
- Kambala usually takes place between November and March, coinciding with the post-harvest season when the paddy fields are flooded and left fallow. In this festival, pairs of buffaloes are yoked together and made to race across muddy, water-filled tracks, driven by a farmer or jockey. The race is not merely a competition but a festive display of the bond between humans and buffaloes, which are central to wetland agriculture.
- Historically, Kambala is believed to have originated as a form of thanksgiving to local deities, particularly to the god Manjunatha (a form of Lord Shiva), and also to village spirits or guardian deities, for ensuring good harvests and protection of cattle.
- It also served as a community celebration, where farmers showcased the strength and training of their buffaloes, often seen as symbols of wealth and prestige.
- The event is accompanied by cultural performances, rituals, and local festivities, making it both a religious and social occasion. Today, Kambala has also evolved into a competitive sport, with elaborate organization, sponsorships, and enthusiastic participation.
- However, it has faced controversies in recent years, especially regarding animal rights concerns, as critics argue that the buffaloes are subjected to stress and cruelty.
- Following legal challenges, the Government of India granted exemptions to Kambala under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, recognizing it as a traditional cultural practice similar to Tamil Nadu’s Jallikattu.
- Thus, the Kambala festival is not just a race but a vivid reflection of Karnataka’s rural traditions, agrarian ethos, and community spirit, while also highlighting the ongoing debate between cultural preservation and animal welfare in contemporary India
- Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystems consisting of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions. They thrive in brackish water, where freshwater from rivers meets saline seawater, and are specially adapted to withstand fluctuating tides, high salinity, and waterlogged soils.
- Mangroves act as a natural barrier against coastal erosion, cyclones, and tsunamis, while also serving as important breeding and nursery grounds for fish, crustaceans, and other marine life.
- Ecologically, they are rich in biodiversity and play a crucial role in carbon sequestration, earning them the title of "blue carbon ecosystems."
- In India, mangroves are primarily found along the eastern and western coasts as well as in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The most extensive and famous mangrove forest is the Sundarbans in West Bengal, which is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and home to the Bengal tiger.
- On the east coast, mangroves are found in Odisha (Bhitarkanika), Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu (Pichavaram and Muthupet). On the west coast, significant mangrove stretches exist in Maharashtra (Mumbai, Ratnagiri), Goa, Kerala, and Gujarat (notably the Gulf of Kutch). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands also host vast and dense mangrove forests due to their tropical island geography.
- Thus, mangroves in India are spread across both the mainland coasts and island territories, forming a critical part of the country’s coastal ecology and offering protection, livelihood, and ecological balance to millions living along the seashores
- Mangroves hold immense ecological, economic, and social significance, making them one of the most vital coastal ecosystems in India and across the world. Their importance can be explained in the following way:
- Mangroves act as natural shields against disasters, protecting coastal communities from cyclones, storm surges, and even tsunamis by reducing wave intensity and preventing soil erosion.
- Their dense root systems trap sediments, stabilize shorelines, and prevent saltwater intrusion into agricultural lands, thus maintaining soil fertility in coastal areas. They are also called the “nurseries of the sea” because they provide breeding and spawning grounds for fish, crabs, shrimps, and mollusks, which in turn sustain the livelihoods of millions of fishermen.
- From an ecological perspective, mangroves are rich in biodiversity, housing a wide range of species, including saltwater crocodiles, migratory birds, Royal Bengal tigers (in the Sundarbans), and rare marine organisms.
- They also contribute significantly to climate change mitigation by storing large amounts of “blue carbon” in their biomass and sediments, often more efficiently than tropical rainforests.
- Economically, mangroves support industries like fisheries, honey collection, timber, and medicinal plants. They also help sustain eco-tourism in areas like Sundarbans and Pichavaram. Culturally, many coastal communities regard mangroves as sacred and integral to their way of life.
- In short, mangroves represent a lifeline for coastal ecology and society, balancing environmental protection with economic sustenance, and their conservation is essential for resilience against climate change and natural disasters
1.Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest? (UPSC CSE 2015)
(a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
(b) South-West Bengal
(c) Southern Saurashtra
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
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Answer (d)
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are ecologically diverse and unique because they host a mix of mangrove forests (along the coastlines), tropical evergreen forests (in the interiors with high rainfall), and tropical deciduous forests (in drier regions of the islands).
Thus, this region stands out as the only one in India where all three forest types coexist naturally. |
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Origin & Course of Brahmaputra:
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The Brahmaputra originates as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, near the Angsi glacier.
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It flows eastwards through Tibet for about 1,600 km before turning south into Arunachal Pradesh (as Siang/Dihang) and then into Assam as the Brahmaputra, eventually merging with the Ganga in Bangladesh (where it is called the Jamuna).
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Strategic Importance:
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The river is not only an ecological lifeline for Northeast India but also a matter of strategic and security concern since it flows through both China and India.
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China has been developing large-scale infrastructure projects, including dams and bridges, on the Yarlung Tsangpo.
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China’s Bridge over the Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo):
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In 2021, China unveiled a new bridge across the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet.
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The bridge is located near the Lhoka (Shannan) region, close to Arunachal Pradesh.
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Satellite imagery shows that this bridge can handle heavy military vehicles, indicating its strategic use for rapid troop and equipment movement.
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India’s Concerns:
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Such infrastructure boosts China’s military logistics along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
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There are concerns about China’s plans for dams on the upper reaches, which may affect downstream water flow into India and Bangladesh.
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Environmentalists warn that mega projects on this seismically active and ecologically fragile river system could lead to flooding, water scarcity, and ecological imbalance.
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India’s Response:
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India is closely monitoring developments through satellite surveillance and diplomatic channels.
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The Government of India has been investing in border infrastructure (roads, bridges, tunnels) in Arunachal Pradesh and Northeast India.
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To safeguard water interests, India has also been seeking bilateral river data-sharing agreements with China, though trust issues remain
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