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Critical Topics and Their Significance for the UPSC CSE Examination on March 25, 2025
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What are DNA polymorphisms and how do they differentiate between people?
For Preliminary Examination: mRNA, DNA
For Mains Examination: GS III - Science & Technology
Context:
Just like the government uses an Aadhaar number to uniquely identify an individual for social security purposes, a person’s DNA fingerprint can be used for biological purposes. This is why DNA analysis is such a big deal. Today, it is most often (but not exclusively) used together with technologies like PCR, capillary electrophoresis, and fingerprinting
Read about:
What is DNA?
- Every cell in the human body—including those in the skin, blood, teeth, and bones—contains 46 DNA molecules. These molecules are inherited in two sets: 23 from the father through sperm and 23 from the mother via the egg.
- Unlike other cells, sperm and egg cells carry only a single copy of the genome rather than two. This fundamental characteristic enables the creation and application of DNA fingerprints for identifying individuals and their relatives.
- Within the cell, DNA is compactly arranged into chromosomes. For instance, chromosome 3 holds 6.5% of the total DNA content. The chromosome 3 inherited from the father is mostly similar to the one from the mother, except for certain variations known as polymorphisms.
- These DNA polymorphisms help distinguish one individual from another. They also reveal whether chromosome 3 from the father was inherited from his mother or father, and the same applies to the maternal chromosome. Such variations allow for tracing ancestry.
- Typically, DNA profiles are constructed using specific polymorphisms found in regions of DNA called short tandem repeats (STRs).
What are STRs?
- DNA consists of two strands, each composed of a sequence of four chemical bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). These strands are arranged in an anti-parallel manner, meaning they run in opposite directions.
- They are also complementary, as adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. During cell division, the strands separate, and new complementary strands are formed, ensuring that the daughter cells inherit the same genetic sequence.
- Occasionally, errors occur during this process, leading to mutations. However, such mutations are rare, typically occurring less than once per billion base pairs per generation.
- An STR is a short sequence of DNA base pairs that repeats multiple times, such as GATCGATCGATC. On the complementary strand, this sequence appears as CTAGCTAGCTAG. STRs are highly variable among individuals, meaning unrelated people usually have different numbers of repeat units in certain STR regions.
How is DNA copied?
- To analyze DNA effectively, scientists need to produce multiple copies of specific STR regions. This is accomplished through a laboratory technique called Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), which can amplify a selected DNA segment of up to 5,000 base pairs, even from a minimal initial sample.
- The process begins with extracting DNA from a biological sample, such as tissue. The sample is then heated to approximately 95°C for 25 seconds to separate the DNA strands.
- Next, primers—short single-stranded DNA sequences—are introduced, which bind to specific regions on the DNA. The temperature is then lowered to around 60°C to allow binding.
- Following this, an enzyme called DNA polymerase facilitates the synthesis of a new DNA strand by attaching complementary bases. Scientists also add extra bases to the mixture to support this process.
- If Taq polymerase is used, the reaction is maintained at around 72°C. This cycle, which consists of three steps, results in the creation of a new DNA copy. Given optimal efficiency, a single DNA copy can multiply to a million copies in about 50 minutes. A specialized device called a thermocycler performs these cycles automatically.
What is a DNA fingerprint?
- Once new DNA copies are generated, they are subjected to capillary electrophoresis, a process where an electric field is applied to move DNA fragments through a capillary.
- Smaller fragments travel faster, allowing for the differentiation of multiple STRs within a single test.
- The distinct sizes of various paternal and maternal STR variants are recorded in a table, which forms a person’s unique DNA fingerprint. The only exception to this uniqueness is in identical twins, who share the same DNA profile.
- DNA fingerprints can be generated from various biological materials, including teeth, bones, blood (even a single drop), saliva, semen, and skin cells.
- These fingerprints play a crucial role in forensic investigations, parentage testing, and identifying individuals from remains found at disaster sites. They are also instrumental in solving crimes, as DNA recovered from blood, sweat, or saliva at crime scenes can be used to confirm or rule out suspects. Additionally, DNA analysis aids in organ donation by ensuring compatibility between donors and recipients.
- DNA is remarkably stable, with researchers successfully extracting it from 65,000-year-old human remains preserved in dry or cold conditions. Advances in DNA profiling have even helped solve long-standing criminal cases by re-examining archived evidence.
- Furthermore, DNA fingerprints have been pivotal in overturning wrongful convictions, proving the innocence of falsely accused individuals
Follow Up Question
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Answer (D)
Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) enables the transfer of genes:
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- According to the IBEF website, trade between India and China in FY24 reached $118.40 billion, reflecting a 4% increase from $113.83 billion in FY23.
- Recent data from the Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) indicates that China has reclaimed its position as India's largest trading partner in FY24, surpassing the United States after a two-year interval.
- China accounted for 15% of India’s total imports during this period. India’s total imports from global markets amounted to $675.42 billion, of which $101.74 billion came from China.
- There is an emerging perspective in India that strengthening trade ties with China may send a strategic signal to the United States and serve as a hedge in global trade dynamics.
- Discussions are reportedly underway to ease certain trade and investment restrictions that were introduced following the Galwan Valley clashes in 2020
- Despite the significant trade volume, China ranks only 22nd in terms of FDI equity inflows into India, with a cumulative investment of $2.5 billion from April 2000 to September 2024.
- While bilateral trade has expanded, investment flows have not kept pace. Reports suggest that China is keen on increasing investments in India, and Indian policymakers may consider some level of flexibility in this regard
Trade Deficit and Market Challenges
Although trade between the two nations has surged since 2020, it has also led to India's largest trade deficit with any country. This deficit has steadily grown, exceeding $83 billion in 2023. The widening gap is largely due to:
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India's limited export portfolio, which mainly includes primary commodities.
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Market access barriers faced by Indian exports in China, particularly in sectors where India holds a competitive advantage, such as pharmaceuticals, IT services, and agricultural products.
Policy Considerations and Potential Easing of Restrictions
The Economic Survey 2023-24 has recommended encouraging Chinese investments in India while simultaneously discouraging imports of finished goods that offer minimal opportunities for local value addition.
There are also ongoing discussions within Indian government departments regarding the possibility of relaxing or modifying certain trade and investment restrictions imposed five years ago following the border conflict. Some of these measures, driven by industry demands, include:
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Relaxing visa restrictions for Chinese professionals.
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Easing tariff and non-tariff barriers on specific imports.
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Potential reintroduction of certain banned Chinese apps.
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Resumption of flights and issuance of visas for Chinese scholars
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Answer (C)
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) has established Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with several countries. The key free-trade partners of ASEAN include:
While Canada and the USA have economic ties with ASEAN, they are not formal free-trade partners under an FTA framework. Thus, the correct answer includes Australia, China, India, and Japan (1, 3, 4, and 5) |
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In the fiscal year 2023-24 (which spans from October 1 to September 30 for the US government), a total of 6.79 lakh applications were received for F-1 visas, out of which 2.79 lakh (41%) were rejected. This marks an increase from 2022-23, where 2.53 lakh applications (36%) were denied out of 6.99 lakh submitted.
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Although the US State Department has not disclosed country-specific rejection rates for F-1 visas, a December 9 report by The Indian Express indicated that the number of student visas granted to Indians in the first nine months of 2024 had fallen by 38% compared to the same period in 2023.
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The data also highlights that while overall student visa applications have declined in the past decade, the percentage of denials has increased. The highest number of applications was recorded in 2014-15 at 8.56 lakh, but this figure steadily declined, reaching a low of 1.62 lakh in 2019-20 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Following the pandemic, applications showed a steady rise, yet 2023-24 witnessed a 3% drop—from 6.99 lakh in 2022-23 to 6.79 lakh. Consequently, the total number of denials in 2023-24 (2.79 lakh) was the highest percentage in at least a decade. The number of F-1 visas granted also fell from 4.45 lakh in 2022-23 to 4.01 lakh in 2023-24.
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The F-1 visa is issued to international students enrolled in academic programmes in the US, while the M-1 visa is designated for vocational and non-academic courses. The analysis by The Indian Express focused on F-1 visas, which account for over 90% of student visas issued annually by the US.
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Indian students form a major segment of the international student population in the US. The Open Doors 2024 report revealed that Indians surpassed Chinese students in 2023-24, becoming the largest group of international students (29.4% of the total). The Indian student population in the US reached a record 3.31 lakh in 2023-24, as per Open Doors data
- The 2024 Bill mandates the registration of all waqfs and their associated properties on a centralized portal and database within six months of the law's enactment. If any government-owned property appears in this database, the District Collector is required to conduct an inquiry and submit a report to the state government.
- A proposed amendment by JD(U) MP Dileshwar Kamait, which was accepted by the Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC), allows for extensions in the registration deadline under certain conditions.
- If a mutawalli (caretaker) provides a valid reason for failing to register the waqf on time, the Waqf Tribunal is now empowered to grant an extension. However, the Bill does not define the acceptable circumstances for extensions or specify a maximum time limit, leaving the decision to the Tribunal’s discretion.
- Another amendment, introduced by BJP MP Dr. Radha Mohan Das Agarwal, was also accepted by the JPC. Under the 2024 Bill, after six months from its enactment, waqfs that fail to register on the portal will be barred from initiating any legal proceedings, including suits and appeals.
- Additionally, the District Collector has been given authority over matters that were previously under the Waqf Tribunal’s jurisdiction. The Bill further clarifies that any government property classified as waqf—before or after the Act’s enforcement—will not be considered a waqf property, with the District Collector responsible for making this determination instead of the Tribunal.
Opposition to the Bill:
- According to AIMPLB (All India Muslim Personal Law Board) spokesperson SQR Ilyas, leaders from JD(U), RJD, Congress, and Lok Janshakti Party, including Bihar CM Nitish Kumar, have been invited to a discussion in Patna. Similarly, in Andhra Pradesh, the TDP, YSR Congress, Congress, and Left parties have been approached.
- Ilyas expressed gratitude on behalf of the Board to various Muslim organizations, civil society groups, and leaders from Dalit, Adivasi, OBC, and other minority communities for their support. He also thanked opposition parties and MPs who actively opposed the Bill in Parliament.
- The AIMPLB’s 31-member Action Committee has vowed to use constitutional, legal, and democratic means to resist the legislation, which they have criticized as controversial, discriminatory, and harmful
1.Consider the following statements regarding the 2024 Waqf Bill:
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The Bill mandates the registration of all waqf properties on a central portal within six months of its enactment.
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The power to determine whether a government property is classified as waqf property lies with the Waqf Tribunal.
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After six months of the Bill’s implementation, waqfs that are not registered on the portal cannot initiate any legal proceedings.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 1 and 3 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1, 2, and 3
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Answer (B)
Statement 1 is correct – The 2024 Bill requires all waqfs and their associated properties to be registered on a centralized portal within six months of its enforcement. Statement 2 is incorrect – Under the Bill, the District Collector, not the Waqf Tribunal, is given the authority to determine whether a government property classified as waqf will continue to be recognized as such. Statement 3 is correct – The Bill states that waqfs not registered within six months will be barred from filing suits, appeals, or legal proceedings |
Key Concepts of Carbon Markets
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Cap-and-Trade System:
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A central authority (usually a government or regulatory body) sets a cap on the total amount of GHG emissions allowed.
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Emission allowances (permits) are distributed or auctioned to companies, giving them the right to emit a certain amount of COâ‚‚ or other GHGs.
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Companies that reduce their emissions below their allowance can sell their excess permits to others that need them.
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Carbon Credits:
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A carbon credit represents the right to emit one ton of COâ‚‚ or an equivalent amount of other GHGs.
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Credits can be generated through projects that reduce or remove emissions (e.g., renewable energy, reforestation, or energy efficiency initiatives).
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These credits can be traded in carbon markets.
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Compliance vs. Voluntary Markets:
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Compliance Markets: Operate under government-mandated regulations (e.g., the European Union Emissions Trading System or California's Cap-and-Trade Program). Companies are legally required to participate.
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Voluntary Markets: Allow companies and individuals to purchase carbon credits voluntarily to offset their emissions, often for corporate social responsibility (CSR) or sustainability goals.
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Carbon Offset Projects:
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Projects that reduce, avoid, or remove emissions (e.g., renewable energy, afforestation, methane capture) generate carbon credits.
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These credits can be sold to entities looking to offset their emissions
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Answer (D)
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The Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT) onboard the Aditya-L1 mission identified a solar flare ‘kernel’ when it observed an X6.3-class solar flare on February 22, 2024—one of the most powerful types of solar eruptions. This discovery is significant as SUIT detected brightening in the near-ultraviolet spectrum (200-400 nm), providing crucial insights into solar activity.
Understanding the Solar Cycle and the Surge in Solar Missions
1. Solar Cycle Trends and Importance
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the current increase in solar activity and sunspot numbers suggests that the solar cycle may be approaching its peak, although an official confirmation is pending. Scientists believe that the solar maximum presents the best opportunity for launching and studying the Sun. If this window is missed, the next phase of intense solar activity will not occur until 2035-2036.
2. The Solar Cycle
The Sun’s magnetic field operates similarly to that of a bar magnet, with north and south poles created by the continuous motion of electrically charged particles. Roughly every 11 years, the Sun undergoes a magnetic polarity reversal, switching its poles. This periodic transformation is referred to as the solar cycle.
3. Solar Maximum and Minimum
Solar activity on the Sun’s surface is directly influenced by this cycle. When the magnetic field flips, the Sun enters its most active phase, known as the solar maximum. During this period, it emits more frequent and intense bursts of radiation and energetic particles. Once the reversal is complete, solar activity gradually diminishes until the solar minimum begins, marking the start of a new cycle.
4. Sunspots and Their Role
Sunspots—dark, cooler regions with strong magnetic fields—are most abundant during the solar maximum and least frequent during the solar minimum. Scientists monitor the solar cycle by counting sunspots, as they serve as key indicators of solar activity.
5. Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CME)
As the solar cycle progresses, the frequency of solar flares and CMEs (coronal mass ejections) increases.
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Solar flares result from the sudden release of stored magnetic energy, emitting high-energy radiation and charged particles.
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CMEs involve the ejection of large amounts of plasma and magnetic fields from the Sun into space.
6. Impacts of Solar Activity
Major solar events significantly affect space weather and Earth’s geospace, leading to:
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Disruptions in radio communications
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Interference with satellite functions
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Potential damage to power grids
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Increased risks for astronauts and airline passengers
Key Solar Missions
As the solar maximum provides an optimal period for studying the Sun, several significant space missions have been launched:
1. Aditya-L1 Mission (India)
India’s first solar mission, Aditya-L1, was launched on September 2, 2023, to enhance our understanding of the Sun’s radiation, heat, particle flow, and magnetic fields. The spacecraft carries seven payloads, with two of the most crucial instruments being:
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Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VLEC)
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Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT)
2. Proba-3 (European Space Agency)
The European Space Agency (ESA) launched Proba-3 on December 5, 2024, using ISRO’s PSLV-C59 rocket. This mission marks the first-ever attempt at precision formation flying, where two satellites will travel in a synchronized manner.
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The Occulter Spacecraft (200 kg) and the Coronagraph Spacecraft (340 kg) will mimic a natural solar eclipse by precisely maneuvering in Earth's orbit, allowing scientists to study the Sun's corona in greater detail.
3. PUNCH Mission (NASA)
NASA’s PUNCH (Polarimeter to UNify the Corona and Heliosphere) Mission was launched on March 11, 2025.
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The mission comprises four small satellites, each roughly the size of a suitcase, working in unison to create a wide-field view of the Sun’s corona.
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These satellites will help in mapping the transition of the solar corona into the solar wind, shedding light on how solar material travels through space
1.If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC CSE 2022)
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
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Answer (c)
A major solar storm (solar flare) can have significant effects on Earth’s technological infrastructure and atmospheric conditions. Let's analyze each statement:
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| Subject | Topic | Description |
| Polity | Centre and State relations | Centre State and interstate relations |
| Environment & Ecology | Marine Ecosystem | Marine Ecosystem |
| Economy | Consumer Rights | Consumer Rights |
| Ancient History | Buddhism | Buddhism |
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