Caste in India has been a significant subject of study, both historically and academically, to understand its profound influence on society and the socio-economic challenges faced by various communities. Researchers have approached the subject from diverse perspectives to analyze its complexities. During colonial times, caste studies were primarily conducted to facilitate administration, while post-independence, caste became a cornerstone of affirmative action policies aimed at addressing long-standing inequalities. However, despite extensive research, the absence of comprehensive and uniform caste data persists as a critical shortcoming, emphasizing the necessity of a caste-based Census to tackle disparities more effectively.

The Need for a Caste-Based Census

• India’s affirmative action framework categorizes communities into three main groups: Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC). These classifications encompass a wide variety of caste groups under broad categories.
• Scheduled Castes represent those historically subjected to untouchability, Scheduled Tribes are recognized for their social and economic disadvantages, and OBCs are marked by social and economic marginalization. Communities not falling into these groups are placed in the General Category.
• However, this broad categorization raises several issues. Concerns include certain castes monopolizing benefits, the potential need to include additional castes, and the inability to direct assistance to those in genuine need due to a lack of reliable data.
• Additionally, such broad categories fail to capture the nuanced inequalities within caste and tribal groups. This is where the significance of a caste-based Census becomes apparent.
• Scholars Christophe Z. Guilmoto and Himanshu, in their analysis of Bihar’s 2023 caste Census, explore the necessity of detailed caste data to address these gaps. Bihar’s initiative, along with similar efforts by Karnataka and other states, underscores the increasing demand for granular data on caste.
• A caste-based Census plays a crucial role in advancing backward-caste politics by accurately identifying OBCs, many of whom lack adequate documentation for inclusion in affirmative action programs.
• It also strengthens arguments for revisiting the Supreme Court’s 27% reservation cap to align with demographic realities. Furthermore, such data can prevent the misuse of benefits by uncovering disparities within communities, fostering a more equitable system.

The Historical Context of Caste in Bihar

• Caste has been a defining factor in shaping Bihar’s socio-political landscape. During the colonial period, caste data was used for administrative purposes, such as identifying so-called “criminal tribes.” After independence, the Indian Constitution institutionalized affirmative action through provisions like Articles 16(4) and 340, recognizing the socio-economic backwardness of certain groups. However, these classifications were often based on expert opinions rather than empirical data, as was the case with the Mandal Commission.
• From the 1950s onwards, caste-based politics became deeply entrenched in Bihar’s social fabric. Key developments, such as the Karpoori Formula of 1978 and the implementation of the Mandal Commission’s recommendations in 1990, empowered OBCs under leaders like Lalu Prasad Yadav.
• However, internal divisions within OBCs led to political fragmentation, resulting in the emergence of parties like the Janata Dal (United) [JD(U)] and the Lok Janshakti Party (LJP). In 2007, Nitish Kumar’s Mahadalit mission further stratified SCs. Despite repeated calls for a nationwide caste Census, Bihar undertook its own in 2023 to address data deficiencies and highlight intra-caste socio-economic disparities.

Methodology of the 2023 Bihar Caste Census

• Bihar’s caste Census in 2023 overcame legal hurdles to collect data on caste, gender, and religion. Conducted in two phases—household listing in early 2023 and socio-economic data collection later—the Census categorized 215 communities into SCs, STs, OBCs, Most Backward Classes (MBCs), forward castes, and a distinct "other reported castes" (ORC) group.
• The results revealed that over 98% of Bihar’s population falls into backward classes, SCs, STs, or the General Category. Among them, BCs and MBCs constitute nearly two-thirds of the population.
• While dominant groups like Yadavs (14.3%) and certain Dalit communities are significant, the population remains highly fragmented, with the top 10 castes comprising less than half of the total population. The Census highlighted Bihar’s extreme diversity, with a fractionalization index of 0.96, surpassing even the ethnic diversity of countries like China or the U.S.
• To evaluate socio-economic conditions, factor analysis was employed, focusing on 78 communities with populations exceeding one lakh. Although the Census included essential socio-economic data, its limitations—such as the exclusion of indicators like age, land ownership, and regional breakdowns—restricted the depth of analysis.

Disparities in Income and Education

• The Census revealed stark socio-economic disparities across caste clusters (GC, ORC, BC, MBC, SC, ST). General Category and ORC groups lead in income and education, while Dalit communities, particularly Musahars and Bhuiyas, remain at the bottom.
• Over 40% of SC and ST households earn below ₹6,000 per month, compared to 25% among GCs. Meanwhile, 12% of ORCs earn over ₹50,000 per month, far exceeding the ₹8,000 average income of Dalits.
• Educational disparities mirror these income trends. For example, less than 3.5% of Dalits attain higher education, compared to 17% of General Category individuals. Musahars and Bhuiyas average fewer than four years of schooling, while Kayasthas average 10.7 years. The strong correlation between income and education, as demonstrated through polynomial regression, underscores the role of education in improving socio-economic outcomes, particularly among upper castes.
• Despite broad categorization, intra-cluster diversity is evident. While BCs generally fare better than MBCs, certain MBC groups like Dangis and Halwais outperform some BCs. Yadavs, the largest caste in Bihar, reflect regional averages but show internal disparities, with 40% living in poverty and 6% attaining high education levels.
• Similarly, Muslim groups like Pathans and Sheikhs face challenges comparable to BCs. These findings highlight the inability of broad administrative categories to capture the complexities of caste-based inequalities.

Employment and Asset Ownership

• Employment patterns reveal significant caste-based inequalities. General Category groups dominate public and private sector jobs, while marginalized SC communities, such as Musahars and Bhuiyas, are confined to manual labor.
• Although reservations have improved access to government jobs, they primarily benefit dominant OBC castes like Kurmis, Kushwahas, and Yadavs. Marginalized groups and Muslims remain underrepresented.
• Asset ownership and migration trends further illustrate socio-economic disparities. Forward castes and ORCs lead in housing and asset ownership, while groups like Musahars, Tiyars, and Bhuiyas struggle with inadequate housing or homelessness.
• Migration patterns also differ, with forward castes dominating student migration, while both wealthy and impoverished groups engage in labor migration.
• Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the Census ranked communities based on socio-economic status, with Musahars, Tiyars, and Bhuiyas identified as the most deprived, while Kayasthas emerged as the wealthiest