DELIMITATION EXERCISE
1. Context
The rebellion in the Trinamool Congress ranks, especially in its parliamentary party, has revived talk that the government is likely to bring the Delimitation Bill as early as the Monsoon Session, likely to start mid-July.
2. About delimitation
- Delimitation refers to the process of determining the number of seats and defining the boundaries of electoral constituencies for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies.
- It also involves allocating seats specifically reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) within these legislative bodies.
- As outlined in Articles 82 and 170 of the Constitution, the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, as well as the demarcation of constituencies, is subject to adjustment following each Census.
- This delimitation process is overseen by a Delimitation Commission established by an act of Parliament.
- Such redistricting exercises have historically occurred following the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses.
3. Constitutional Requirements and Current Status
- The constitutional requirement for democratic governance stipulates that the government should be elected by the people, with the principle of 'one citizen-one vote-one value' being paramount.
- Historically, the number of seats in the Lok Sabha was determined based on population figures from the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses, resulting in an average population per seat of 7.3 lahks, 8.4 lahks, and 10.1 lahks respectively.
- However, since the 1971 Census, the number of seats has been frozen to incentivize population control measures, ensuring that states with higher population growth do not gain disproportionately higher representation.
- This freeze was initially implemented through the 42nd Amendment Act until the year 2000 and extended by the 84th Amendment Act until 2026.
- Consequently, seat allocation is based on the population figures from the 1971 Census, with adjustments slated to occur following the first Census after 2026.
- Ordinarily, the delimitation process, including determining the number of seats, defining territorial constituency boundaries, and allocating reserved seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), would align with the Census of 2031, being the first Census post-2026.
- However, with the postponement of the 2021 Census and the approach of the year 2026, discussions are underway regarding the impending delimitation exercise.
5. International Practices in Seat Allocation
- In the United States, the number of seats in the House of Representatives, akin to India's Lok Sabha, has remained fixed at 435 since 1913. Despite the population increase from 9.4 crore in 1911 to an estimated 33.4 crore in 2023, the method of equal proportion is utilized to redistribute seats among states following each Census. This method aims to maintain fairness, ensuring that no significant gain or loss occurs for any state. For instance, after the 2020 Census, 37 states saw no change in their number of seats, while Texas gained two seats, five states gained one seat each, and seven states lost one seat each.
- In the European Union Parliament, comprised of 720 members, seat allocation among its 27 member countries follows the principle of degressive proportionality. This principle entails that the ratio of population to the number of seats increases as population size increases. For example, Denmark, with a population of around 60 lahks, has 15 seats (with an average population of 4 lahks per member), while Germany, with a population of 8.3 crores, has 96 seats (with an average population of 8.6 lahks per member).
6. Proposed Ideal Solution
- The dilemma between democratic and federal principles in delimitation can be effectively addressed by striking a balance that acknowledges the significance of both. A harmonious solution can be achieved by giving equal weight to democratic representation and federal structure.
- The number of Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Lok Sabha could be capped at the current level of 543 seats. This ensures continuity in representation from various states, thereby upholding the federal principle. MPs primarily legislate on matters listed in the Union List, such as Defense, External Affairs, Railways, Telecommunication, and Taxation, and hold the Central government accountable.
- To meet democratic representational requirements, the number of Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in each state can be increased in alignment with the current population. This adjustment can be made without altering the number of seats in the Rajya Sabha, thereby addressing the need for fair representation at the state level.
- Crucially, to strengthen democracy at the grassroots level, empowering local bodies like panchayats and municipalities is imperative. These entities engage directly with citizens on a daily basis and play a vital role in governance. Significant devolution of powers and finances to these bodies is essential to enhance democracy at the grassroots level, ensuring effective citizen participation in decision-making processes.
7. The Way Forward
Finding a balanced approach to delimitation that considers democratic representation, federal stability, and local governance empowerment is crucial for India's future. This proposed solution offers a starting point for discussion and debate to ensure a fair and effective delimitation process that strengthens the nation's democracy.
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For Prelims: Delimitation, Census, Covid-19 Pandemic, Article 82, Article 170 For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the potential conflict between the principle of "one citizen-one vote" and the freezing of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 Census in the context of delimitation. Discuss how this can impact federalism and representation in India. (250 Words)
2. How can the delimitation exercise be conducted in a manner that fosters national integration and strengthens the federal structure of India? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
5. The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to (UPSC 2015)
A. protect the interests of the Scheduled Tribes
B. determine the boundaries between States
C. determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
D. protect the interests of all the border States
Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A
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Source: The Hindu
CENSUS
1. Context
Record turnouts in the recently concluded Assembly elections have brought satisfaction to all those who believe in the ultimate say of numbers and counts in a democracy. The only concern amid this celebration is whether everyone who needs to be counted has actually been included. This sense of urgency should equally drive the ongoing Census, the mother of all counts.
2. History of Census
- India had conducted the Census every 10 years since 1881, but in 2020, the decennial exercise for Census 2021 had to be postponed due to the pandemic.
- Though the government has not announced fresh dates for the Census, the groundwork is being laid and details are emerging about some of the features.
- It will be the first digital Census allowing citizens to "self-enumerate". The NPR (National Population Register) has been made compulsory for citizens who want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators.
- For this, the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) has designed a "self-enumeration, Aadhaar or mobile number will be mandatorily collected.
3. Status of the Census exercise
- A January 2 notification extending the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries in States until June 30 has ruled out the exercise at least till September.
- As preparation and training take at least three months, the Census will have to be pushed to next year.
- Around 30 lakh government officials will be assigned as enumerators and each will have the task to collect the details of 650-800 people through both online and offline modes, covering an estimated population of 135 crore people.
- The Lok Sabha election is due in April-May 2024 and it is unlikely that the Census will be carried out before that since the same workforce will be dedicated to the elections.
- The completion of both phases of the Census will take at least 11 months, even if done at an accelerated pace from October 1.
4. Holding up the Census
- One reason which is holding up the exercise is the amendments proposed to the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969.
- The government wants to have a centralised register of births and deaths that can be used to update the population register, electoral register, Aadhaar, ration card, passport and driving license databases.
- The centrally stored data will be updated in real-time without a human interface leading to addition and deletion from electoral rolls when an individual turns 18 and after an individual's death respectively.
- A Bill to link the births and deaths registered with the population register and others are expected to be tabled in the next session of Parliament.
5. NPR
- The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
- Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
- According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
- Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
- Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
- In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
- There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
- Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.
5.1. The current status of NPR
- The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
- It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
- In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
- The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
- For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
- The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
- The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
- The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
- Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
- The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
- The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
- The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.
6. Expected expenditure for Census
- The initial draft was prepared by the office of the Registrar General of India and circulated to key Ministries and the Prime Minister's Office called for the conduct of Census 2021 at a cost of ₹9, 275 crores and not the NPR.
- The draft Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) not was then revised and a financial provision of ₹4, 442.15 crores for updating the NPR was added on the directions of the MHA "subsequently".
- The proposal was cleared on August 16, 2019, and it received the Union Cabinet's nod on December 24, 2019.
- It was decided that the enumerator engaged for Census would also collect details for NPR.
- The Covid-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and since then both exercises are on hold.
- Now, the NPR has been made compulsory if citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own.
- The deleted Handbook said that it is "mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR".
- Census is also mandatory and giving false information is a punishable offence.
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For Prelims: NPR, CAA, Census, Covid-19, Expenditure Finance Committee, Registrar General of India, Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969, The Treatise on Indian Censuses Since 1981, Assam,
For Mains:
1. How can citizens file Census details online? Explain the norms being laid down and discuss the reasons for National Population Register being made compulsory for those who want to fill out the form digitally. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
Prelims:
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2009)
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
3. Sinovac given for Covid-19 is a (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022)
A. Protein sub-unit
B. Non-replicating viral vector
C. Whole virus vaccine
D. mRNA vaccine
Answer: C
4. Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the Parliament which Include "The Macro Economic Framework Statement". The aforesaid document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC 2020)
A. Long-standing parliamentary convention
B. Article 112 and Article 110 (1) of the Constitution of India
C. Article 113 of the Constitution of India
D. Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003
Answer: D
5. Who is the Census Commissioner of India in 2021? (ICAR Technician 2022)
A. Dr Vivek Joshi
B. Dr C Chandramouli
C. Shri Sailesh
D. DK Sikri
Answer: A
6. The Registration of Birth and Death Act came into force in the year _____. (UPSSSC Junior Assistant 2020)
A. 1964 B. 1969 C. 1972 D.1981
Answer: B
7. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2022)
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Kerala
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Tripura
How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States?
A. Only one State
B. Only two States
C. Only three States
D. All four States
Answer: C
8. Consider the following rivers (UPSC 2014)
1. Barak
2. Lohit
3. Subansiri
Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?
A. 1 only B.2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains:
1. Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth. (UPSC 2014)
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Source: The Hindu
ARAVALLI RANGE
1. Context
Four months ago, a wildlife trail through the rocky outcrops of the Bhondsi stretch of the Aravalli forests in Gurgaon led wildlife enthusiasts to a stone surface marked with dozens of carefully carved cup-shaped depressions, geometric grids, and a large foot-shaped engraving.
2. Significance of the Aravalli range
- Beyond being almost two billion years old and the oldest mountain system in India, these hills function as a vital ecological shield against the advance of desert conditions into the Indo-Gangetic plains.
- They act as a natural barrier slowing the eastward expansion of the Thar Desert into Haryana, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh. The range plays a crucial role in climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and groundwater replenishment.
- Extending roughly 650 km from Delhi to Gujarat, it supports key water-recharge networks and gives rise to major rivers such as the Chambal, Sabarmati, and Luni.
- The region is abundant in building stones like sandstone, limestone, marble, and granite, as well as minerals including lead, zinc, copper, gold, and tungsten.
- Although these resources have been extracted for centuries, the last forty years have seen rampant stone and sand quarrying, leading to declining air quality and a sharp reduction in groundwater recharge.
- Part of this mining activity has occurred unlawfully. The Court also observed that India has international obligations under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification to safeguard fragile ecosystems like the Aravalli range
3. Geological & Physical Features of Aravalli
- The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain systems in the world, with its geological origins dating back nearly two billion years to the Precambrian era.
- Unlike young fold mountains such as the Himalayas, the Aravallis have undergone extensive weathering and erosion over millions of years, which has reduced them to a series of low-lying hills, ridges, and rocky outcrops rather than sharp peaks.
- This long geological history makes the range a valuable record of early crustal evolution and ancient tectonic processes on the Indian subcontinent.
- Geologically, the Aravallis are composed primarily of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including quartzite, schist, gneiss, marble, and granite. These rock formations are part of the Aravalli–Delhi orogenic belt, which was formed due to ancient tectonic collisions and crustal movements.
- The presence of economically significant minerals such as copper, lead, zinc, gold, and tungsten reflects the complex geological processes that shaped the region. Over time, repeated uplift and denudation exposed these mineral-rich formations at the surface, making the range an important mining zone historically.
- Physically, the Aravalli Range stretches for about 650 kilometres in a south-west to north-east direction, beginning near Palanpur in Gujarat and extending through Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
- The range is discontinuous in nature, with broken hill chains and isolated ridges rather than a continuous mountain wall. Its highest peak is Guru Shikhar in the Mount Abu region of Rajasthan, rising to about 1,722 metres above sea level.
- Moving northwards, the height of the range gradually declines, merging into low hills and rocky terrain around Delhi.
- The Aravallis play a significant role in shaping the physical geography of north-western India. Acting as a natural climatic divide, they influence rainfall patterns by intercepting south-west monsoon winds to a limited extent and preventing the unchecked eastward expansion of the Thar Desert.
- The range also forms an important watershed, giving rise to several seasonal and perennial rivers such as the Chambal, Sabarmati, Luni, and Banas.
- The fractured and porous nature of its rock formations allows rainwater to percolate underground, contributing substantially to groundwater recharge in an otherwise semi-arid region
4. What is the “100-metre definition” of Aravalli Hills?
- The “100-metre definition” of the Aravalli Hills refers to an administrative and legal criterion used—especially in environmental regulation and court proceedings—to identify and protect the Aravalli region.
- Under this definition, any area that rises more than 100 metres above the surrounding plain is treated as part of the Aravalli hill system, irrespective of whether it is a prominent mountain, ridge, or a low, eroded hill. In other words, even subtle elevations and fragmented hillocks that meet this height threshold are classified as Aravalli features.
- This definition became important because the Aravallis are very old and heavily eroded, meaning many sections no longer appear as classic mountains. If protection were limited only to visibly high or continuous hills, large portions of the range—especially in Haryana, Rajasthan, and the Delhi-NCR region—would fall outside legal safeguards.
- The Supreme Court and various environmental authorities have relied on the 100-metre criterion to prevent mining, construction, and land-use change in ecologically sensitive areas of the Aravalli range.
- By using a measurable elevation benchmark rather than appearance alone, the definition helps expand environmental protection to degraded and fragmented parts of the hills
5. Supreme Court Intervention and Uniform Definition
- The Supreme Court’s intervention in the Aravalli region arose from growing concerns over rampant mining, construction, and land-use changes that were degrading this fragile and ancient mountain system.
- One of the core problems identified by the Court was the absence of a uniform and scientifically grounded definition of the Aravalli Hills.
- Different States and authorities were using varying criteria—based on revenue records, forest classification, or visual identification—allowing large tracts of the Aravallis to be excluded from protection and opened up for exploitation.
- To address this ambiguity, the Supreme Court emphasised the need for a uniform definition applicable across States, particularly Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi, where the Aravallis are most fragmented and vulnerable.
- The Court endorsed an objective, elevation-based approach, popularly referred to as the “100-metre definition”, under which land rising more than 100 metres above the surrounding plains would be treated as part of the Aravalli hill system.
- This was intended to ensure that even low, eroded, or discontinuous hill formations, which are characteristic of the Aravallis due to their great geological age, are brought within the protective framework.
- Through its interventions, the Supreme Court also linked the protection of the Aravallis to India’s international environmental obligations, particularly under the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
- The Court observed that the degradation of the Aravalli range could accelerate desertification in north-western India and undermine groundwater recharge, air quality, and regional climate stability.
- Consequently, it directed governments to adopt a consistent and precautionary approach in identifying, mapping, and regulating activities in the Aravalli region
6. Action against mining
- Since the early 1990s, the Union Environment Ministry has framed regulations permitting mining only in projects that receive official approval, but these safeguards have been widely disregarded.
- In response to persistent violations, the Supreme Court intervened in 2009 and enforced a complete ban on mining activities in Haryana’s Faridabad, Gurugram, and Mewat districts.
- More recently, in May 2024, the Court halted the issuance and renewal of mining leases across the Aravalli range and instructed its Central Empowered Committee (CEC) to carry out an in-depth review. This exercise culminated in a set of recommendations submitted in March 2024.
- The CEC advocated a holistic strategy that called for scientifically mapping the entire Aravalli system across States, conducting a broad-scale environmental impact assessment of mining operations, and enforcing an absolute ban on mining in ecologically fragile zones.
- These included wildlife-protected areas, water bodies, tiger corridors, critical groundwater recharge regions, and locations within the National Capital Region.
- The Committee also stressed the need for tighter controls over stone-crushing units and advised that no fresh mining permissions or lease extensions be granted until comprehensive mapping and impact studies were completed.
- The Supreme Court incorporated these recommendations in its order issued in November 2025.
- In addition, in June 2025, the Union government launched the Aravalli ‘Green Wall’ initiative, aimed at increasing vegetation cover in a five-kilometre buffer zone around the range across 29 districts in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi.
- According to the government, this programme is expected to make a significant contribution towards the restoration of 26 million hectares of degraded land by the year 2030.
7. Way Forward
The Court observed that earlier instances demonstrate how absolute prohibitions frequently give rise to illegal mining networks, aggressive sand mafias, and uncontrolled resource extraction. Consequently, instead of enforcing a complete shutdown, the Court adopted a balanced strategy—allowing lawful mining operations to proceed under strict oversight, placing a temporary halt on new mining activities until a science-based framework is developed, and keeping ecologically critical zones permanently closed to mining
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For Prelims: Aravalli ranges, UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
For Mains: GS I - Indian Geography
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Source: The Hindu
INDIA-NEPAL
1. Context
India and Nepal completed the internal processes to enforce the mutual legal assistance pact to tackle “cross-border crimes”, as the visiting Foreign Minister of Nepal Shishir Khanal met External Affairs minister S Jaishankar on Saturday
2. India-Nepal Bilateral relations
India and Nepal share a long and intertwined history, marked by cultural, religious, and economic connections.
- Ancient Ties: The historical connections between the people of India and Nepal date back to ancient times. There have been exchanges of culture, traditions, and religious practices, particularly due to the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism in the region.
- Political Relations: The emergence of powerful kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent, such as the Maurya and Gupta empires, influenced the political landscape of Nepal. Over the centuries, various dynasties ruled both regions, and they often maintained close ties.
- Medieval Period: During the medieval period, both regions witnessed the spread of Islam, and the Mughal Empire's influence in India impacted the political dynamics in Nepal. The rulers of Nepal maintained their autonomy during this period.
- The British Influence: As the British East India Company expanded its influence in the Indian subcontinent, the territories surrounding Nepal were affected. However, Nepal managed to remain independent and maintained its sovereignty.
- Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816): The Anglo-Nepalese War took place between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal. The war concluded with the signing of the Sugauli Treaty in 1815, which defined the boundary between British India and Nepal, establishing the Kali River as the western boundary of Nepal.
- Treaty of Friendship (1950): The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 between India and Nepal is a crucial document that governs their relations. The treaty establishes close ties, including provisions for free movement of people and goods between the two countries.
- Economic Cooperation: Over the years, economic cooperation has played a significant role in India-Nepal relations. Trade, transit facilities, and developmental assistance have been important aspects of their bilateral cooperation.
- Cultural and People-to-People Ties: The cultural affinities between the people of India and Nepal have remained strong. The open border allows for extensive people-to-people interactions, and shared religious practices, especially Hinduism, further contribute to the close bond between the two nations.
- India and Nepal boast robust defence cooperation. India supports Nepal's military modernization through equipment, training, and disaster assistance. Joint exercises like SURYA KIRAN foster collaboration. Since 1950, Chiefs of the Army exchanged honorary ranks, symbolizing the deep bond. Gorkha regiments showcase this connection further.
3. India-Nepal Border Dispute
The India-Nepal border dispute, simmering for decades, continues to be a major point of contention between the two nations. Understanding the complexities of this issue requires delving into its historical roots, contested areas, and ongoing efforts towards resolution.
Tracing the Origins
- Treaty of Sugauli (1816): This treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal defined the initial border, but ambiguities in the document sowed the seeds of future disagreements.
- Kalapani Valley: This strategically located valley at the confluence of the Kali and Mahakali rivers is a major flashpoint. Both India and Nepal claim ownership, each citing historical records and maps.
- Lipulekh Pass: This mountain pass provides access to Kailash Mansarovar, a sacred pilgrimage site for Hindus. India's construction of a road here in 2020 reignited tensions.
- Susta Area: Located in Nepal's Terai region, this fertile land along the Gandak River is another disputed territory.
Impact of the Dispute
- Strained Bilateral Relations: The border issue casts a shadow on the otherwise friendly ties between India and Nepal.
- Local Communities Affected: Uncertain land ownership hampers development projects and impacts the lives of people living along the border.
- Security Concerns: Unresolved territorial claims can potentially pose security risks in the region.
Efforts Towards Resolution
- Joint Technical Level Boundary Working Group (JTLBWG): Established in the 1980s, this group has successfully demarcated most of the border but remains deadlocked on the disputed areas.
- Diplomatic Consultations: Both countries engage in regular talks to find a solution, but progress has been slow.
- Public Discourse: Civil society groups and media in both countries play a role in raising awareness and advocating for peaceful resolution.
4. Why is Nepal so important?
Nepal is important to India for various strategic, cultural, economic, and geopolitical reasons. The close relationship between the two countries is rooted in historical, geographical, and sociocultural ties. Here are several reasons why Nepal is significant to India:
- Nepal shares a long and open border with India. This geographical proximity fosters people-to-people connections, facilitates trade, and allows for easy movement of goods and people between the two countries.
- India and Nepal share deep cultural and religious ties, with Hinduism being the predominant religion in both nations. Many Hindu pilgrimage sites, such as Pashupatinath Temple and Lumbini (the birthplace of Lord Buddha), are located in Nepal, attracting pilgrims from India.
- Nepal holds strategic importance for India due to its location between India and China. The geopolitical dynamics of the region make Nepal a crucial player in India's efforts to maintain regional stability and security.
- Several rivers originating in Nepal flow into India, making water resources a significant aspect of the relationship. Cooperation on river management and water-sharing agreements is essential for both countries.
- India and Nepal engage in extensive economic cooperation, including trade and transit agreements. The open border facilitates the movement of goods, contributing to economic integration between the two nations.
- Both countries share concerns related to regional security, including counter-terrorism and the maintenance of peace in the region. Collaboration on security matters is crucial for addressing common challenges.
- The historical relationship between India and Nepal is characterized by mutual respect and support. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 solidified the close ties and included provisions for economic and security cooperation.
- India and Nepal maintain diplomatic relations at various levels. High-level visits and diplomatic engagements help in addressing bilateral issues and strengthening the overall relationship.
- As both India and China seek to expand their influence in the region, Nepal's strategic position becomes crucial. India aims to maintain strong ties with Nepal to counterbalance any growing influence from other countries, including China.
- Given the shared borders and historical connections, a stable and friendly Nepal is vital for ensuring overall regional stability. India's interests in maintaining peace and harmony in its neighbourhood underscore the importance of a positive relationship with Nepal.
5. China, India and Nepal- Trilateral Dynamics
- Balancing Act: Nepal often engages in a delicate balancing act between its two large neighbours, India and China. It seeks to maintain cordial relations with both countries while safeguarding its own interests.
- Infrastructure Projects: China's infrastructure projects in Nepal, particularly under the BRI, have been a source of concern for India. The geopolitical implications of such projects contribute to the complexity of trilateral relations.
- Regional Stability: Stability in Nepal is crucial for both India and China to ensure regional peace and security. The three countries have overlapping interests in maintaining stability in the Himalayan region.
6. India's Neighbourhood First Policy
India's Neighbourhood First Policy is a strategic foreign policy initiative aimed at prioritizing and strengthening relations with its immediate neighbours. This policy, which gained prominence in the early 2000s, seeks to:
- Build friendly and mutually beneficial relationships with all neighbouring countries.
- Engage in active development partnerships through infrastructure projects, economic cooperation, and knowledge sharing.
- Create a stable and secure regional environment conducive to collective growth and prosperity.
- Promote regional cooperation and integration on issues like trade, security, and cultural exchange.
Key Pillars of the Policy
- Consultative and non-reciprocal approach: Engaging neighbours with respect for their sovereignty and prioritizing their needs.
- Focus on outcome-oriented solutions: Delivering tangible benefits through concrete projects and initiatives.
- People-to-people contacts: Fostering cultural exchange, educational opportunities, and tourism to build lasting bonds.
- Security cooperation: Addressing regional security threats through collaboration and joint efforts.
Examples of Implementation
- Boosting trade and investment: Free trade agreements, border trade facilities, and infrastructure development projects.
- Cooperation in energy, water resources, and disaster management: Sharing expertise, technology, and resources for mutual benefit.
- Cultural exchange programs: Promoting understanding and appreciation of each other's traditions and languages.
- Security partnerships: Joint training exercises, intelligence sharing, and border management cooperation.
Challenges and Opportunities
- Internal conflicts and political instability in some neighbouring countries can hinder progress.
- Competition from other major powers like China for influence in the region.
- Building trust and resolving bilateral issues like border disputes require ongoing dialogue and diplomacy.
7. The Way Forward
The recent developments underscore the complexity and significance of India-Nepal relations and the trilateral dynamics involving China. The resolution of the border dispute, ongoing diplomatic efforts, and collaboration in various sectors will play pivotal roles in shaping the future of these relationships.
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For Prelims: India, Nepal, China, Kalapani Valley, Treaty of Sugauli, Lipulekh Pass, Susta Area, Treaty of Friendship, Anglo-Nepalese War
For Mains:
1. Discuss the historical ties between India and Nepal, highlighting key milestones and factors shaping their relationship. (250 Words)
2. Assess the key pillars of India's Neighbourhood First Policy. Discuss the challenges and opportunities in its implementation, considering recent developments in India-Nepal relations and regional geopolitics. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2016)
Community sometimes
mentioned in the news In the affairs of
1. Kurd Bangladesh
2. Madhesi Nepal
3. Rohingya Myanmar
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. 3 only
2. The Treaty of Sugauli, 1816 was signed between the British and ______ (Bihar Police SI 2019) (SSC CPO 2019)
A. Sikhs B. Gurkhas C. Marathas D. French
3. Lipulekh Pass is in which state of India (SSC CHSL 2020) (OSSC WEO 2022)
A. Assam B. Himachal Pradesh C. Uttarakhand D. Jammu and Kashmir
4. When was the Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed? (UPRVUNL AE EE 4 2021)
A. 1949 B. 1953 C. 1951 D. 1950
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
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Source: The Indian Express
SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHG)
1. Context
A government-commissioned evaluation of central rural sector schemes, including the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), has found that most self-help groups (SHGs) for women did not start income-generating businesses with the funds provided
2. Self Help Groups (SHGs)
- Self Help Groups (SHGs) are community-based organizations formed by a small group of individuals, usually from the same socio-economic background, who come together to collectively address their common needs and aspirations.
- These groups play a significant role in empowering marginalized and economically disadvantaged individuals, especially women, by providing them with a platform to enhance their social, economic, and decision-making capabilities.
3. Key Features and Objectives
- Collective Strength: SHGs encourage individuals to pool their resources, skills, and knowledge to collectively address challenges and opportunities.
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs promote savings and credit activities, allowing members to accumulate funds for emergencies, livelihood initiatives, and income generation.
- Empowerment of Women: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment, aiming to enhance their status, self-confidence, and participation in household and community decision-making.
- Social Cohesion: SHGs foster a sense of community, solidarity, and mutual support among members, contributing to social cohesion and collective development.
- Skill Development: SHGs often engage in skill-building activities, vocational training, and awareness programs to enhance members' livelihood opportunities.
4. Need for SHGs
The establishment of Self Help Groups (SHGs) addresses a range of socio-economic needs and challenges faced by marginalized and economically disadvantaged communities, particularly women, in various regions. The need for SHGs arises from several factors:
- Poverty Alleviation: SHGs contribute to poverty reduction by promoting income-generating activities and small-scale enterprises among members. These initiatives empower individuals to generate additional sources of income and improve their standard of living.
- Women's Empowerment: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment by providing them with a collective platform to enhance their decision-making abilities, self-confidence, and socio-economic status. This empowerment extends to their households and communities.
- Access to Credit: SHGs provide an alternative source of credit for members who may not have access to formal banks. This access to credit supports various needs, including emergencies, education, health expenses, and livelihood development.
- Entrepreneurship Promotion: SHGs promote entrepreneurial spirit by encouraging members to initiate and manage small-scale businesses. This contributes to local economic development and job creation.
- Women's Participation: By involving women in SHGs, gender norms, and stereotypes can be challenged, leading to increased participation in decision-making processes and more equitable distribution of resources.
5. Issues with SHGs
While Self Help Groups (SHGs) have proven to be effective in addressing various socio-economic challenges, they also face certain issues and challenges that can impact their functioning and overall impact. Some of the key issues with SHGs include:
- Inequitable Participation: Despite the focus on women's empowerment, SHGs sometimes face challenges in ensuring equal and meaningful participation of all members, particularly marginalized and socially excluded women.
- Dependency on External Support: Many SHGs rely heavily on external support for training, capacity-building, and financial assistance. This can hinder their long-term sustainability and self-reliance.
- Lack of Financial Literacy: Some SHG members may have a limited understanding of financial concepts and practices, making it difficult for them to effectively manage their savings and loans.
- Limited Market Linkages: While SHGs encourage income-generating activities, members often lack access to markets to sell their products or services, which can hinder their economic growth.
- Loan Default and Repayment Issues: In some cases, members struggle with loan repayment, leading to tensions within the group and potential disruptions in trust and collaboration.
6. Role of SHG in Women's Empowerment
The role of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in women's empowerment is significant and multifaceted. SHGs provide a platform that empowers women economically, socially, and personally, enabling them to enhance their status, decision-making abilities, and overall well-being. Here's an overview of the role of SHGs in women's empowerment:
Economic Empowerment:
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs provide women access to savings and credit facilities, enabling them to accumulate funds for emergencies and invest in income-generating activities.
- Income Generation: SHGs promote entrepreneurship and livelihood opportunities among women, helping them generate additional sources of income for their families.
- Asset Ownership: Through collective savings and loan activities, women can acquire assets such as land, livestock, and equipment, contributing to their economic independence.
Social Empowerment:
- Decision-Making: Participation in SHGs helps women develop confidence, leadership skills, and a voice in household and community decisions.
- Knowledge and Awareness: SHGs offer a platform for sharing information, learning about health, education, legal rights, and government programs, empowering women to make informed choices.
Personal Empowerment:
- Self-Confidence: Engaging in group activities and interacting with peers fosters self-confidence and self-esteem among women.
- Agency and Autonomy: Women gain a sense of agency over their lives, enabling them to assert their rights and negotiate with family members and external stakeholders.
Gender Equality:
- Changing Norms: SHGs challenge traditional gender norms and stereotypes by promoting women's participation in economic activities, decision-making, and leadership roles.
- Balanced Power Dynamics: Women's increased involvement in income generation and decision-making contributes to more equitable power dynamics within households.
Community Transformation:
- Ripple Effect: Empowered women within SHGs serve as role models, inspiring other women in the community to join and pursue their own empowerment journey.
- Poverty Alleviation: Economic empowerment through SHGs contributes to poverty reduction and overall community development.
7. Conclusion
The expansion of the SHG movement's horizons, evolving from its initial focus on social mobilization and financial inclusion to encompass economic development, represents a natural progression along the livelihood continuum. While the shift from being mere producers to becoming entrepreneurs is indeed a positive transition, it's crucial not to overlook the inherent differences between business enterprises and savings groups or social collectives. Governments, although supportive, have yet to demonstrate their prowess in fostering entrepreneurship within rural settings.
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For Prelims: Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Poverty Alleviation, Financial Inclusion, Women Empowerment, and Gender Equality.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the role and significance of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in empowering marginalized communities, particularly women, for socio-economic development in rural areas. (250 Words)
2. Analyse the challenges faced by SHGs in their functioning and sustainability, and suggest measures to enhance their effectiveness as vehicles for grassroots empowerment and poverty alleviation. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. The Self-Help Group (SHG) programme was originally initiated by the State Bank of India by providing microcredit to the financially deprived.
2. In an SHG, all members of a group take responsibility for a loan that an individual member takes.
3. The Regional Rural Banks and Scheduled Commercial Banks support SHGs.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one
B. Only two
C. All three
D. None
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
WESTERN DISTURBANCES AND EL NINO
1. Context
The El Niño phenomenon is fairly well known in India, thanks to widespread discussion in the media in connection with its impact on the Indian monsoon
2. What are Western Disturbances?
- Western Disturbances are weather systems that move eastward and bring rainfall. They develop in regions west of India, mainly around Afghanistan and Iran, and gain moisture from water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Arabian Sea.
- These systems are generally extra-tropical cyclones formed due to the interaction between cold polar winds and warm tropical winds, creating low-pressure conditions.
- They are carried by the subtropical westerly jet stream, a fast-flowing, high-altitude air current that travels from west to east above the Himalayan and Tibetan regions.
- Western Disturbances occur most frequently during the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere, especially from December to March, and significantly affect the weather of northwestern India along with neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan
3. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
- The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major climatic process characterised by variations in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean along with associated changes in atmospheric conditions above it.
- These shifts can disturb global atmospheric circulation patterns and thereby affect weather conditions across different parts of the world. ENSO has three phases — the warm phase known as El Niño, the cool phase called La Niña, and a neutral phase — and generally recurs at irregular intervals ranging from two to seven years.
- Under neutral conditions, the eastern Pacific Ocean near the western coast of South America remains cooler compared to the western Pacific around Indonesia and the Philippines.
- This temperature difference is maintained by easterly trade winds that push warm surface waters westward, allowing colder water from deeper layers to rise to the surface in the eastern Pacific.
- During an El Niño event, the eastern Pacific experiences abnormal warming of surface waters. This weakens the moisture-laden winds reaching India and often leads to a weaker or delayed monsoon, causing dry conditions in several agricultural regions.
- Studies have also linked El Niño with an increased occurrence and intensity of heatwaves in India.
- In April, the U.S. Climate Prediction Center estimated a 61% probability of El Niño developing between May and July and expected it to continue through the year.
- La Niña represents the reverse situation, where the eastern Pacific surface waters become cooler than usual.
- This strengthens the moisture-carrying winds towards India and generally enhances the southwest monsoon. However, in severe cases, the resulting heavy rainfall can trigger floods and damage crops
4. What is a Heatwave?
A heat wave refers to a prolonged spell of abnormally high temperatures that are significantly above the average climatic conditions of a particular region. Since normal temperature levels differ across regions based on historical weather patterns, the definition of a heat wave also varies accordingly. Its intensity can further increase due to factors such as high humidity, strong winds, and the length of the hot spell.
According to the criteria used by the India Meteorological Department, a heat wave may be identified when the maximum temperature reaches at least 40°C in plain areas and 30°C in hilly regions. After this threshold is crossed, a heat wave can be officially declared on two main bases:
- Departure from normal temperature:
If the temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C above the seasonal average, it is classified as a heat wave. When the temperature exceeds this range, it may be categorised as a severe heat wave. - Absolute maximum temperature:
A heat wave is automatically declared when the maximum temperature touches or surpasses 45°C. If the temperature reaches 47°C or more, it is considered a severe heat wave.
5. What are Wet bulb and Dry bulb Temperatures?
- The temperature commonly recorded using a standard thermometer is known as the Dry Bulb Temperature. It represents the actual air temperature but does not take atmospheric moisture into consideration.
- In contrast, Wet Bulb Temperature measures the lowest temperature that air can achieve through the evaporation of water, thereby indicating the efficiency of evaporative cooling under humid conditions.
- Generally, the Wet Bulb Temperature remains lower than the Dry Bulb Temperature, and the gap between the two becomes larger when the air is drier.
- According to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, continuous exposure to wet bulb temperatures above 35°C can be life-threatening.
- Even temperatures exceeding 31°C can pose serious risks during strenuous physical activity. Individuals with existing health conditions such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases are particularly vulnerable, while outdoor workers and labourers face greater danger because of dehydration and prolonged heat exposure.
- At the same time, the AR6 notes that the possibility of such extreme wet bulb temperatures persisting for more than a few hours remains very low
6.Impacts of heat waves in India
- The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
- For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
- Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
- Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
- Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
- Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
- According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
- The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
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The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
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For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
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Previous Year Questions
1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010)
1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013) |
Source: Indianexpress
