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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 19 JUNE 2026

NIPAH VIRUS

 
 
1. Context
 
Kerala’s first encounter with Nipah virus (NiV) was in 2018, which identified 23 cases (including 18 lab-confirmed ones). The case fatality rate was 91% and there were two survivors. Since then, Kerala has recorded numerous spillovers of NiV
 
2. Nipah Virus
  • Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus that can spread between animals and people.
  • The natural host of NiV is fruit bats, also known as flying foxes.
  • NiV can also infect pigs and people
  • NiV infection can cause a range of illnesses, from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis. The case fatality rate for NiV infection is estimated to be between 40% and 75%
  • The symptoms of NiV infection typically appear 4-14 days after exposure to the virus. The initial symptoms are similar to those of the flu, including fever, headache, and cough.
  • In severe cases, the virus can cause encephalitis, which is a swelling of the brain. Encephalitis can lead to coma and death.
  • NiV can be transmitted from animals to people through contact with infected saliva, urine, or other bodily fluids.
  • It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated food or water. Person-to-person transmission of NiV is possible, but it is rare.
  • Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in several countries in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, and Singapore.
  • The virus has caused sporadic outbreaks, with varying levels of severity
3.Transmission
 
Nipah Virus — The Jenner Institute
  • The first outbreaks of the Nipah virus among humans was reported from Malaysia (1998) and Singapore (1999).
  • The virus takes its name from the village in Malaysia where the person in whom the virus was first isolated died of the disease.
  • The transmission from animals happens mainly through consumption of contaminated food. According to the CDC, transmission can happen due to consumption of raw date palm sap or fruit that has been contaminated with saliva or urine from infected bats.
  • Some cases of NiV [Nipah] infection have also been reported among people who climb trees where bats often roost.
  • The animal host reservoir for this virus is known to be the fruit bat, commonly known as flying fox.
  • Fruit bats are known to transmit this virus to other animals like pigs, and also dogs, cats, goats, horses and sheep
  • Humans get infected mainly through direct contact with these animals, or through consumption of food contaminated by saliva or urine of these infected animals
  • Since it was first identified in 1998-99, there have been multiple outbreaks of the Nipah virus, all of them in South and Southeast Asian nations. In Bangladesh, there have been at least 10 outbreaks since 2001.
    In India, West Bengal had seen an outbreak in 2001 and 2007, while Kerala had reported several cases in 2018, and isolated cases in 2019 and 2021.
4. Zoonotic diseases

Zoonotic diseases, also known as zoonoses, are infectious diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, and they pose a significant public health concern worldwide. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals, their secretions, or contaminated environments. Some common examples of zoonotic diseases include:

  1. Influenza: Various strains of influenza viruses can infect both animals and humans. Influenza viruses can undergo genetic changes, leading to new strains that have the potential to cause pandemics.

  2. Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that primarily affects mammals, including bats, dogs, and raccoons. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal and can be fatal if not treated promptly.

  3. Salmonellosis: Caused by the bacterium Salmonella, this disease is often associated with contaminated food products, particularly those of animal origin such as poultry and eggs.

  4. Lyme Disease: Transmitted by ticks, Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is commonly found in wildlife, particularly deer. Humans can become infected when bitten by an infected tick.

  5. West Nile Virus: This mosquito-borne virus primarily circulates among birds but can be transmitted to humans through mosquito bites, leading to fever and, in some cases, severe neurological complications.

  6. E. coli Infections: Certain strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) can cause gastrointestinal illness in humans. Contaminated food and water, as well as contact with infected animals, can lead to E. coli infections.

  7. HIV/AIDS: While the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is primarily transmitted among humans, it is believed to have originated from the transfer of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from non-human primates to humans, making it a zoonotic disease.

  8. COVID-19: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is believed to have originated in bats and was likely transmitted to humans through an intermediate animal host, highlighting the zoonotic nature of the virus.

5. Way forward
Nipah virus is considered a serious public health concern due to its high mortality rate, the potential for person-to-person transmission, and the lack of specific treatments or vaccines. Surveillance and research efforts are ongoing to better understand and combat this virus. It's essential to stay updated on the latest information and follow public health guidelines if you live in or travel to regions where Nipah virus is known to be present.
 
For Prelims: Viruses, Bacteria, Immunity, Vaccine types
For Mains: 1.Discuss the challenges in controlling viral diseases and the strategies employed by governments and international organizations in addressing viral epidemics. Highlight the lessons learned from recent viral outbreaks
2.Analyze the global problem of antibiotic resistance and its implications for healthcare. Suggest policy measures and interventions to combat the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
 
 
 
Previous Year Questions
1.Viruses can affect (UPSC CSE 2016)
1.Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Plants
Select the correct code with the following code
A.1 and 2 only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (D)
2. Which of the following statements is/ are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013)
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy
2.Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium
3.Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only 
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (A)
 
Source: indianexpress
 
 

STRAIT OF HORMUZ

 
 
1. Context
 
The Iran–U.S. memorandum of understanding (MoU), as described by U.S. officials and media reports, contains two significant shipping-related provisions. While it promises relief from sanctions on Iranian oil sales, it also opens the possibility of Iran asserting a formal role in managing transit through the Strait of Hormuz and potentially charging fees for passage. Before the conflict, Iran did not exercise such a right, and merchant vessels transited the strait without mandatory tolls.
 
2. What is the Strait of Hormuz?
 

  • The Strait of Hormuz is a strategically significant and narrow maritime passage situated between Iran and Oman, serving as a link between the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has labeled it as the world’s most vital oil transit chokepoint, through which nearly 20% of global liquid petroleum fuels and a substantial portion of LNG trade pass. In May, more than 45% of India’s crude oil imports were estimated to have transited through this strait. Given that India is the third-largest consumer of crude oil globally and imports over 85% of its oil needs, the strait plays a crucial role in its energy security.

  • Data from the commodity analytics firm Kpler indicates that, as of June, India has been importing over 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) of crude oil from Russia, which constitutes more than 41% of its total oil imports.

  • While oil imports from the U.S. have shown a steady rise, supplies from West Asian nations such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait have remained relatively consistent. Many of these shipments were likely planned prior to the recent escalation in tensions between Israel and Iran, and therefore, may not reflect the impact of the current geopolitical developments.

  • Over the past two to three years, India has notably adjusted its oil import strategy. Russia has emerged as India’s top crude supplier, overtaking traditional exporters from West Asia. Importantly, Russian oil bypasses the Strait of Hormuz, as it is mainly transported via alternative sea routes like the Suez Canal and Red Sea, and sometimes through the Cape of Good Hope or Pacific Ocean routes.

3.Why is Strait of Hormuz Critical?
 
  • The Strait of Hormuz is commonly considered the most critical maritime chokepoint in the world. It links the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean, serving as a major export corridor for regional oil producers.
  • At its narrowest point, it measures only about 21 nautical miles (38 km) across. Under typical conditions, nearly 21 million barrels of oil—around one-fifth of global consumption—flow through it daily.
  • Alongside crude oil, substantial quantities of liquefied natural gas from Qatar and the UAE are transported via this passage.
  • A significant share, close to 80%, is destined for Asian markets, making countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea heavily reliant on this route.
 
4. Other Major Global Chokepoints
 
  • Apart from Hormuz, international trade depends on a few other strategically vital maritime passages, including the Strait of Malacca, Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Suez Canal, and Panama Canal.
  • The Strait of Malacca lies between the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia’s Sumatra island and represents the shortest maritime route connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. This makes it indispensable for trade flows linking West Asia, Africa, and East Asia.
  • The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is positioned between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa.
  • It serves as the southern entrance to the Red Sea, a necessary transit point for vessels heading toward the Suez Canal and onward to the Mediterranean, thereby forming a crucial segment of Asia–Europe trade routes.
  • The Suez Canal, a man-made channel across Egypt, connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, significantly reducing travel time by eliminating the need to circumnavigate Africa.
  • Further west, the Panama Canal cuts through the Isthmus of Panama, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strategic shortcut facilitates trade between Asia, the Americas, and Europe, removing the necessity of sailing around South America
 
5. Why is the Strait of Hormuz strategically important for India?
 

  • India’s current oil procurement approach already demonstrates a diversified and risk-mitigated strategy, especially in light of uncertainties in West Asian oil routes, with Russian crude now making up the largest share of India’s import basket.

  • After recent U.S. air strikes targeting Iranian nuclear sites, Iran’s parliament passed a resolution on Sunday advocating the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital corridor for global oil transportation. The final decision on this move now lies with Iran’s Supreme National Security Council.

  • Although Iran has repeatedly issued threats in the past to shut the strait, it has never acted on them. Even in the present context, industry analysts consider the likelihood of an actual blockade to be low. Nevertheless, the increased risk perception surrounding the potential closure is expected to trigger global alarm, including in India, by raising concerns over the security of oil and gas supplies and potentially driving up global energy prices.

 
6. How does the Israel-Iran conflict pose a threat to global oil and gas flows?
 
 
  • The Israel-Iran conflict poses a significant threat to global oil and gas flows due to the geopolitical sensitivity and strategic location of the region. At the heart of this issue lies the Strait of Hormuz—a narrow but crucial maritime passage through which nearly 20% of the world’s petroleum and a substantial share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are transported.
  • Iran borders this strait and has, over the years, repeatedly threatened to block it during periods of heightened tension, including in response to military actions or sanctions.
  • When hostilities between Israel and Iran escalate—such as through air strikes, proxy conflicts, or cyber warfare—it increases the likelihood of retaliation from Iran that could involve disrupting maritime traffic in the Strait of Hormuz.
  • Even if Iran does not fully close the strait, the mere threat or perception of such an action is enough to cause volatility in global energy markets. Tanker insurance rates rise, shipping routes are reconsidered, and countries heavily dependent on oil imports, like India, become increasingly vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks.
  • Furthermore, any military conflict in this region risks damaging key infrastructure such as refineries, pipelines, or export terminals in the broader West Asian region.
  • This would constrain oil production and distribution, affecting both the availability and price of crude oil and gas worldwide. Global markets respond quickly to these risks, often resulting in immediate spikes in prices due to concerns over supply security.
  • In summary, the Israel-Iran conflict amplifies the risk to global oil and gas flows by potentially destabilizing a region that is central to global energy supply chains. It heightens fears of supply disruptions, increases market speculation, and threatens the economic stability of energy-importing countries, making it a matter of both geopolitical and economic concern
7. Way Forward
 

The flow of vessels through major international chokepoints is largely regulated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. According to its provisions, straits that are used for global navigation fall under the concept of “transit passage,” which permits ships and aircraft from all countries to move through them freely, continuously, and without interference.

At the same time, coastal states bordering these straits are allowed to introduce regulations related to safety or environmental protection. However, they are not permitted to block passage or apply discriminatory restrictions on specific vessels. While this freedom of navigation is widely accepted in international law, its practical implementation often depends on the naval capabilities of states and the level of cooperation among them

 
 
For Prelims: Strait of Hormuz,  Persian Gulf, Energy Information Administration (EIA), liquefied natural gas (LNG)
 
For Mains: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line? (UPSC CSE 2008)

(a) Malacca Strait

(b) Bering Strait

(c) Strait of Florida

(d) Strait of Gibraltar

Answer (b)

The International Date Line (IDL) roughly follows the 180° longitude, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, deviating slightly to accommodate international boundaries.

The Bering Strait lies between Russia and Alaska, and it is very close to the 180° meridian, making it the closest strait to the International Date Line.

Here's why the other options are incorrect:

  • Malacca Strait – Lies between Malaysia and Indonesia, far west of the IDL.

  • Strait of Florida – Lies between the U.S. (Florida) and Cuba, in the Atlantic Ocean.

  • Strait of Gibraltar – Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, between Spain and Morocco, far from the IDL.
Source: Indianexpress
 
 
 

FREE TRADE AGREEMENT 

1. Context

 European Commission’s President Ursula von der Leyen said on Wednesday that the EU will sign the Free Trade Agreement with India by the end of the year.
 

2. About the Free Trade Agreement

  • A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
  • FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
  • The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
  • By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.

3. Types of Free Trade Agreement

  • Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them.  It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
  • Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
  • Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
  • Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
  • Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
  • Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
  • Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.

4. India's Free Trade Agreements

India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others.  India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs. 

  • The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
  • The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
  • The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
  • The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
  • The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
  • The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.

5.  India - UK Free Trade Agreement

5.1. Background

  • Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
  • The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
  • By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
  • India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
  • While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.

5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)

  • The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
  • One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
  • For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
  • It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
  • These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
  • If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
  • In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
  • Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
  • Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
 
For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union, 
For Mains: 
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6
 
Answer: C
 

2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018)

(a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output.
(b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output.
(c) Poverty and unemployment increase.
(d) Imports grow faster than exports.

Answer: C

3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)

  1. Development of infrastructure facilities.
  2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources.
  3. Promotion of exports of services only.

Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?

(a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011)

(a) the money supply is fully controlled
(b) deficit financing takes place
(c) only exports take place
(d) neither exports nor imports take place

Answer: D

5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club.
2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
 
 Source: The Hindu
 
 
 

SMALL NUCLEAR MODULAR REACTORS

 

1. Context

The country’s top atomic energy regulator is expected to maintain the same rigorous safety and licensing requirements for small modular reactors (SMRs) as those applicable to large nuclear reactors

2. Small Modular Reactors (SMR)

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are a type of nuclear reactor design that offers a more compact and scalable alternative to traditional large-scale nuclear power plants. These reactors are characterized by their smaller size, enhanced safety features, and potential for more flexible deployment. Here are some key features and aspects of Small Modular Reactors:

  • Size and Scalability: SMRs are designed to be much smaller in size compared to conventional nuclear reactors. Their compact nature allows for easier manufacturing, transport, and installation. Additionally, SMRs can be built in a modular fashion, with multiple units deployed together, which offers flexibility in capacity planning and expansion.
  • Enhanced Safety: Many SMR designs incorporate advanced safety features that reduce the likelihood of accidents and mitigate potential consequences. Passive safety systems and inherent design characteristics can make SMRs more resilient in the face of unexpected events.
  • Reduced Environmental Footprint: The smaller size and modular construction of SMRs can lead to a reduced environmental impact in terms of land use, resource consumption, and waste generation. This can be particularly advantageous in regions with limited space or where environmental concerns are paramount.
  • Flexible Deployment: SMRs can be deployed in a wider range of locations compared to traditional large reactors. They can serve diverse purposes, including providing power to remote communities, supporting industrial processes, and complementing renewable energy sources.
  • Standardization and Mass Production: SMR designs often emphasize standardization and simplified manufacturing processes, which could potentially lead to cost savings through mass production and economies of scale.
Image Source: The Hindu

3. Decarbonisation Challenges

  • Transition Challenges: Moving from coal-fired power to clean energy has hurdles. Policymakers agree solar/wind alone won't suffice for affordable energy.
  • Role of Firm Power: Clean energy grids benefit from a stable power source. Adding one firm power tech cuts costs and boosts reliability.
  • Critical Minerals Demand: Clean energy tech needs minerals like lithium, cobalt, etc. Demand might rise 3.5x by 2030, per IEA.
  • Global Challenges: Meeting mineral demand means new mines, especially in China, Indonesia, Africa, and South America. The rapid expansion raises environmental and social concerns.
  • Concentrated Production: Few nations control most mineral production/processing. Geopolitical risks and supply control emerge.
Image Source: The Hindu

4. Nuclear Power's Role in Net-Zero Goals:

  • NPPs contribute 10% of global electricity, curbing 180 billion cubic meters of natural gas demand and 1.5 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.
  • Ensuring Net-Zero Transition: Reduced nuclear power may hinder cost-effective progress towards net-zero emissions.

5. Advantages of Nuclear Power:

  • Reliable Power Generation: NPPs provide constant power, outperforming variable renewable sources like solar and wind.
  • Efficient Land Use: NPPs need less land and offer lower grid integration costs compared to renewables.
  • Co-Benefits: Nuclear power creates high-skill jobs in technology, manufacturing, and operations.

6. Advantages of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs):

  • Enhanced Safety: SMRs have lower core damage frequency and radioactive contamination risk compared to conventional NPPs. Passive safety features reduce the potential for uncontrolled radioactive releases.
  • Seismic Isolation: SMRs incorporate improved seismic isolation for heightened safety during accidents.
  • Spent Fuel Management: SMRs generate less spent nuclear fuel, reducing storage needs.
  • Brownfield Sites: SMRs can be safely placed on brownfield sites with less stringent zoning requirements.
  • Community Engagement: Power-plant organizations can engage communities, as seen in Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
  • Coal-to-Nuclear Transition: Deploying SMRs at existing thermal plant sites advances net-zero goals and energy security.

7. Supply and Manufacturing:

  • Low-Enriched Uranium: SMRs typically use low-enriched uranium, available from countries with uranium mines and enrichment facilities adhering to international standards.
  • Factory Manufacturing: SMRs are factory-built and assembled on-site, lowering risks of time and cost overruns.
  • Cost Efficiency: Serial manufacturing reduces costs, streamlines regulatory approvals, and fosters experiential learning.

8. Economic Viability:

  • Long-Term Operation: SMRs operate for over 40 years, offering cost-effective electricity. Costs are projected to decrease significantly after 2035.
  • U.S.-India Collaboration: SMRs included in the U.S.-India statement for potential benefits, with cost reduction anticipated through reputed manufacturers.

9. Efficient Regulatory Regime:

  • Regulaorty Efficiency Needed: Like civil aviation, stringent and efficient regulations are vital for SMR's role in decarbonization.
  • Global Cooperation: Countries embracing nuclear energy should collaborate with regulators and the IAEA to harmonize and expedite approvals for standard SMR designs.

10. Integration with National Grid:

  • Energy Capacity Targets: India's projection: Coal-based power 259,000 MW, VRE 486,000 MW by 2032.
  • Energy Storage Needs: Integrating VRE requires 47,000 MW/236 GWh from batteries and 27,000 MW from hydro facilities.
  • Nuclear Expansion: Nuclear power pivotal for India's net-zero by 2070; private sector investment essential.

11. Legal and Regulatory Changes:

  • Amending Atomic Energy Act: Allow private sector SMR setup while ensuring nuclear fuel and waste control by the government.
  • Establish an Independent Regulatory Board: Law required for a capable regulatory body overseeing nuclear power stages.
  • Security and Ownership: Government control over SMR security; private operation under government oversight.
  • Public Perception: Department of Atomic Energy should enhance public awareness through transparent environmental and health data dissemination.
For Prelims: Nuclear Energy, Small Modular Reactors (SMR), Decarbonisation, International Energy Agency (IEA), lithium, cobalt, National Grid, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and Co2 emissions.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the potential of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) in India's journey towards decarbonizing its energy sector. Examine their advantages over conventional nuclear power plants and other renewable sources. (250 Words).
 

Previous year Question

1. In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under "IAEA Safeguards" while others are not? (UPSC 2020)
A. Some use uranium and others use thorium
B. Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies
C. Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises
D. Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned
Answer: B
Source: The Hindu
 
 
 

CARBON BORDER ADJUSTMENT MECHANISM (CBAM)

 

1. Context

Industrial exports to the UK are facing two major regulatory impediments, even after concluding the trade negotiations. Officials said the immediate worry is the steel quota because it comes into effect on July 1. It will be followed by the UK’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) set to come into effect on January 1, 2027.

2. What is a carbon trading platform?

A carbon trading platform, also known as a carbon market or emissions trading platform, is a financial marketplace where organizations and entities can buy and sell carbon credits or emissions allowances. The primary goal of carbon trading platforms is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change by creating economic incentives for entities to reduce their carbon emissions.

Here's how a carbon trading platform typically works:

  • Emissions Allowances: Governments or regulatory bodies set an overall cap on the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions that are allowed within a specific jurisdiction or sector. This cap is typically established to limit emissions and reduce environmental impact.
  • Allocation of Allowances: Under the cap-and-trade system, emissions allowances are distributed or allocated to participating entities, often based on historical emissions or other criteria. These allowances represent the right to emit a specific amount of greenhouse gases.
  • Buying and Selling: Entities that emit fewer greenhouse gases than their allocated allowances can sell their excess allowances to those who exceed their allocated limits. This creates a market for emissions allowances.
  • Carbon Credits: In addition to emissions allowances, carbon trading platforms may also involve the trading of carbon credits. Carbon credits are typically generated by activities that result in emissions reductions or removals, such as reforestation, renewable energy projects, or energy efficiency initiatives. These credits can be sold to entities looking to offset their emissions.
  • Price Determination: The price of emissions allowances or carbon credits is determined by supply and demand in the carbon market. As emissions reduction targets become stricter or as entities seek to voluntarily reduce their carbon footprint, the price of carbon credits can fluctuate.
  • Compliance and Offset: Some carbon trading platforms are mandatory and designed to help entities comply with government emissions reduction targets or regulations. Others are voluntary and allow organizations to offset their emissions voluntarily.
  • Transparency and Verification: To ensure the integrity of the carbon market, transactions are often subject to rigorous monitoring, reporting, and verification processes. Independent third parties may verify emissions reductions and the validity of carbon credits.
  • Environmental Benefits: Carbon trading platforms aim to incentivize emissions reductions, promote the transition to cleaner technologies, and fund projects that have positive environmental impacts.

One of the most well-known carbon trading platforms is the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which operates in the European Union and covers various industries, including energy production, manufacturing, and aviation. Other countries and regions have also established their own carbon trading systems to address emissions reduction goals.

Overall, carbon trading platforms play a crucial role in the global effort to combat climate change by putting a price on carbon emissions and encouraging businesses and governments to reduce their environmental impact.

3. What are Carbon Credits?

Carbon credits, also known as carbon offsets or emission reduction credits, are a key component of carbon trading and cap-and-trade systems aimed at mitigating climate change. They represent a measurable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent from the atmosphere. Carbon credits are typically measured in metric tons of CO2 or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH4) or nitrous oxide (N2O).

Here's how carbon credits work:

  • Emission Reduction or Removal: Carbon credits are generated through activities or projects that either reduce greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., by using cleaner energy sources or improving energy efficiency) or remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (e.g., through reforestation or afforestation projects).
  • Measurement and Verification: The reduction or removal of emissions must be accurately measured and verified according to established standards and methodologies. Independent third-party organizations often perform this verification to ensure the credibility of the carbon credits.
  • Issuance: Once the emissions reduction or removal has been verified, carbon credits are issued. Each carbon credit represents one metric ton of CO2 or its equivalent that has been prevented from entering the atmosphere or removed from it.
  • Trading and Sale: Carbon credits can be bought and sold on carbon markets or through specialized trading platforms. Entities that have exceeded their emissions limits or wish to voluntarily offset their emissions can purchase these credits to compensate for their own emissions.
  • Compliance and Voluntary Markets: Carbon credits serve different purposes in different markets. In compliance markets, entities purchase credits to comply with emissions reduction regulations or obligations set by governments or regulatory bodies. In voluntary markets, organizations and individuals purchase credits as a means of voluntarily offsetting their carbon footprint.
  • Environmental Benefits: The purchase of carbon credits helps fund emissions reduction projects and activities that have positive environmental and climate benefits. These may include renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives, afforestation, reforestation, methane capture from landfills, and more.
  • Additionality: One key principle in carbon credit generation is "additionality," which means that the emissions reductions or removals achieved by a project must be above and beyond what would have occurred in the absence of the project. This ensures that credits represent real and additional climate action.
  • Sustainability and Co-Benefits: Many carbon credit projects are designed not only to reduce emissions but also to provide social, economic, or environmental co-benefits to local communities, such as job creation, biodiversity conservation, or improved air and water quality.

It's important to note that the carbon credit market is subject to various standards and regulations to maintain transparency, integrity, and credibility. Independent organizations and registries play a role in verifying and tracking the issuance and retirement of carbon credits to prevent double counting and ensure that the emissions reductions are genuine.

Carbon credits are a tool for addressing climate change by incentivizing emissions reductions and supporting projects that contribute to a more sustainable and low-carbon future. They are used by governments, businesses, and individuals to take action against climate change and reduce their carbon footprint.

4. Carbon Trading and Carbon Credit

Carbon trading and carbon credits are closely related concepts within the broader framework of climate change mitigation strategies. They are instrumental in addressing the issue of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Here's a detailed explanation of both terms:

Carbon Trading:

  • Definition: Carbon trading, also known as emissions trading or cap-and-trade, is a market-based approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It allows entities, such as companies or countries, to buy and sell emissions allowances, effectively putting a price on carbon emissions.
  • How It Works: Under a carbon trading system, a regulatory authority or government sets an overall cap on the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions allowed within a specific jurisdiction or sector. This cap is often progressively reduced over time to achieve emissions reduction targets.
  • Emissions Allowances: Entities subject to the cap are allocated a certain number of emissions allowances, which represent the right to emit a specific amount of greenhouse gases. These allowances are often distributed based on historical emissions, with the goal of gradually reducing emissions over time.
  • Trading of Allowances: Entities that emit less than their allocated allowances can sell their surplus allowances to entities that exceed their limits. This creates a market for emissions allowances, and the price of allowances is determined by supply and demand.
  • Compliance and Penalties: Entities are required to surrender a number of allowances equal to their actual emissions at the end of a compliance period. Failure to do so results in penalties. Entities that reduce emissions below their allowances can profit by selling their excess allowances.
  • Environmental Goals: Carbon trading aims to achieve emissions reduction goals cost-effectively by allowing entities to find the most efficient ways to reduce emissions, either by reducing emissions directly or by purchasing allowances from others.
  • Types of Markets: Carbon trading can occur in both compliance markets, where entities are legally obligated to participate, and voluntary markets, where entities choose to offset their emissions voluntarily.

Carbon Credits:

  • Definition: Carbon credits, also known as carbon offsets or emission reduction credits, represent a quantified reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent from the atmosphere.
  • Generation: Carbon credits are generated through specific activities or projects that reduce emissions or remove carbon from the atmosphere. These activities can include renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives, reforestation, methane capture from landfills, and more.
  • Measurement and Verification: To ensure the credibility of carbon credits, the reduction or removal of emissions must be accurately measured and independently verified according to established standards and methodologies.
  • Sale and Use: Carbon credits can be bought and sold on carbon markets. Entities that wish to offset their emissions can purchase these credits to compensate for their own emissions, effectively balancing their carbon footprint.
  • Environmental Benefits: The purchase of carbon credits helps fund projects that have positive environmental and climate benefits. These projects contribute to emissions reduction, biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and more

5. Difference between ‘Net Zero’ and ‘Carbon Neutral’

"Net Zero" and "Carbon Neutral" are related but distinct concepts in the context of addressing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They both aim to achieve a balance between the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the amount removed or offset, but they do so in slightly different ways. Here's the difference between the two terms:

Net Zero Carbon Neutral
  • Definition: Net zero, short for "net-zero emissions," refers to the state where the total greenhouse gas emissions produced are fully balanced by the removal of an equivalent amount of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. In other words, the net effect of emissions is zero.
 Definition: Carbon neutrality, also known as "climate neutrality" or "carbon neutrality," means that an entity (e.g., a company, event, or country) has balanced its carbon emissions with an equivalent amount of carbon emissions reductions or removals, typically within a specific timeframe.
Emissions Reduction: Achieving net zero requires a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Organizations, governments, or individuals commit to reducing their emissions as much as possible through various measures, such as transitioning to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and adopting sustainable practices. Scope: Carbon neutrality specifically focuses on balancing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. While other greenhouse gases may be considered, the primary emphasis is on achieving neutrality for CO2 emissions.
Carbon Removal: To reach net zero, any remaining emissions that cannot be eliminated through reduction measures are offset by activities that remove an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This can include activities like afforestation (planting trees), reforestation, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and investment in carbon removal technologies. Achievement: Achieving carbon neutrality can be accomplished through a combination of emissions reduction measures (e.g., using renewable energy, improving energy efficiency) and purchasing carbon offsets or credits to compensate for any remaining emissions.
Scope: Net zero encompasses all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide (CO2). It accounts for emissions of methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and other greenhouse gases as well. Timeliness: Carbon neutrality can be achieved on an annual basis, and it may not necessarily involve a long-term commitment to zero emissions.
Long-Term Goal: Net zero is often seen as a long-term goal, with organizations and countries committing to achieve it by a specific target year, such as 2050. Application: Carbon neutrality is a term commonly used by businesses, events, and individuals to describe their efforts to reduce and offset carbon emissions. It is a practical approach for organizations looking to take immediate action to reduce their carbon footprint.
 
 
For Prelims: Carbon credits, carbon neutral, Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Net Zero’, ‘Carbon Neutral’, and the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS).
For Mains: 1. Explain the concept of the Carbon Border Adjustment Tax (CBAT) and its objectives in the context of climate change mitigation. Discuss the potential benefits and challenges associated with its implementation. (250 words)
2. What are the key principles and mechanisms underlying the proposed Carbon Border Adjustment Tax (CBAT) policies in various regions? Analyze how CBATs can influence international trade and environmental sustainability. (250 Words).
 

 

Previous Year Questions

1.Which of the following adopted a law on data protection and privacy for its citizens known as ‘General Data Protection Regulation’ in April, 2016 and started implementation of it from 25th May, 2018? (UPSC CSE 2019)

(a) Australia
(b) Canada
(c) The European Union
(d) The United States of America

Answer: (c)

2.‘Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA)’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of negotiations held between India and (UPSC CSE 2017)

(a) European Union
(b) Gulf Cooperation Council
(c) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(d) Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Answer: (a)
 
 
 
 

HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

 

1. Context

A Class 9 textbook shaded over the nude torso of the iconic “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-daro before the NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) decided to restore its original image.
 
2. Harappan Civilisation
  • The Harappan/ Indus Valley civilization was the first urban civilization in South Asia, contemporaneous with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
  • It was larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia civilizations. First site excavated: Harappa site by Dayaram Sahni in 1921.
  • John Marshall: first scholar to use the term Indus Civilisation. Most accepted timeline: 2500 BC-1750 BC (Carbon-14 Dating).
  • Period: India Civilization belongs to the proto-historic period- Chalcolithic Age/Bronze Age. Heartland of Indus Civilization: Harappa-Ghaggar- Mohenjo Daro axis.
  • Indus sites found in Afghanistan: Shortughai and Mundigaq.
  • Capital cities: Harappa, Mohenjodaro.
  • Port cities: Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
  • Areas covered: Harappan civilizationtion was triangular in shape and was the largest among the three ancient urban civilization the other two being ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). It roughly covers modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan.
  • Father of Indian archaeology: Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Image Source: WEB

3. Four phases of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)

3.1 Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE

  • This stage is located in eastern Balochistan.
  • Excavations at Mehrgarh- northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of Pre- Harappan culture.
  • The earliest evidence of farming and herding is in South Asia.
    This shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation. Nomadic people began to lead settled agricultural life.

3.2 Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE

  • Characterized by rudimentary town planning in the form of muddy structures and elementary treat hearts and craft
  • Also related to Hakra Phase, identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra valley.
  • Village settlements in plain areas; Gradual growth of towns in Indus Valley.
  • The transition from rural to urban life in this period.
  • Indus script dates back to 3000 BC (This script is still undeciphered) Sites of Amri and Kot diji remain evidence for this stage.

3.3 Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE

  • Marked by a well-developed town with a burnt brick structure established foreign trade crafts of various types.
  • Excavation at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features proves this the phase of evolution.
  • Slow southward migration of the South Asian monsoon allowed villages to develop by taming floods of the Indus and tributaries.

3.4 Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE

  • It was the declining phase. During this several cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared.
  • A gradual decay of significant urban Traits is noticed. Reduction in rainfall triggered a reorganization into large urban centers.
  • Mature Harappan civilization was an ‘a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions on Borders of India and Pakistan’- According to D.A. Lichtenstein
  • Large urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwal, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal. Excavation at Lothal revealed this stage of evolution.
  • Multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of IVC: Culture was in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP; Jhukar culture in Sindh, Rangpur culture was in Gujarat.
  • The latest phases of Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra.
  • The largest late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra

4. Town planning and structure

  • The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles. Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (contemporary Egyptian dried bricks were used).
  • The city was divided into two parts, the city on a raised platform, known as Upper Citadel & the lower town known as Lower Citadel (working-class quarters).
  • A fortified citadel was found, except in Chanhudaro. Most buildings have private wells and properly ventilated bathrooms.
  • Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces for rulers, unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilization.
  • Evidence of an Advanced drainage system. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.
  • The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height.

5. Agriculture

  • Main crops: Wheat and Barley. Evidence of the cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat) only.
  • Other crops: Dates, Mustard, Sesamum, Cotton, Rai, Peas, etc.
  • First to produce cotton in the world and used it for textiles, Called Sindon by the Greeks.
    Used animal-drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles.
  • Gabarbands or Nalas enclosed by dams were found but channel or canal irrigation was
    probably not practiced.
  • Produced sufficient food grains and cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in granaries for wages and emergencies same as in Mesopotamia.

6. Domestication of Animals

  • Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, and camels domesticated.
  • Humped bulls were favored by the Harappans. Neither horse centered nor were they aware of it, but evidence of horses is found in Surkotada, Mohenjo Daro, and Lothal.
  • The lion was not known.  Elephants and Rhinoceros (Amari) were well known.

7. Technology and Craft

  • This is known as the first urbanization in India. Along with stone, they were well acquainted with copper, silver, gold, and bronze (occasionally mixed arsenic with copper instead of tin).
  • Iron was not known to the people.
  • Important crafts: spinning (Spindle whorls), bricklaying, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter’s wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
  • They were aware of the use of the wheel.

8. Trade and Commerce

  • The importance of Trade is established by the presence of Granaries, seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures.
  • They engaged in inter-regional as well as foreign trade. Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluha i.e. ancient name given to the Indus region & mentions two intermediate trading stations- Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
  • Used boats and bullock carts for transportation. No metallic money was in circulation and trade was conducted by means of barter.
  • Import: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Jade, Steatite.
  • Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, beads from Chanhudaro, conch-shell from Lothal, ivory products, copper, etc.

9. Social Organisations

  • Hierarchy in urban habitation. Merchants and priests were an important class of this period.
  • Harappans were fashion-conscious. Different hairstyles and wearing a beard were popular.
  • The use of cosmetics was common (Cinnabar, lipstick, and collyrium) Necklaces, filets, armlets, and finger rings were worn by both men and women but bangles, girdles, anklets, and ear-rings were worn by women only.
  • Beads were made from gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli, etc. - naturalistic animal models as pin-heads and beads.

10. Religious Practices

  • Seal: Male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto- siva), three-horned heads, and is represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, surrounded by an Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros, and Buffalo, and two deer at his feet.
  • Harrapan was a predominantly secular civilization. Prevalence of the Phallus (Lingam) and Yoni, two deer.
  • The chief female deity was the mother Goddess. They worshiped both male and female deities.
  • The people of the Indus region also worshiped trees (pipal), fire, and animals (unicorns, humped bulls, etc).
  • Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces. They used amulets against them.
  • Burials: At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife.
  • Jewelry has been found in the burials of both men and women.

11. Seals and Sealings

  • Most of the seals are square-shaped (2x2 square inches) and made mostly from Steatite.
  • Seals had an animal (except cow and horse) or human figure on one side and an inscription on the opposite side or inscriptions on both sides.
  • Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes, as an amulet, as a form of identification, and for educational purposes as well.
  • Seals with symbols similar to the Swastika design have also been found. The round Persian Gulf seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
  • Interestingly, local Dilmun weights followed the Harappan standard. 
Image Source: Web

12. Art

  • Bronze Casting: Practiced on a wide scale using the lost wax or Cire Perdue technique. They mainly consist of human and animal figures. Example: Dancing Girl. She stands in a Tribhanga dancing posture.
  • Stone Statues: Bearded man: found in Mohenjo- daro and made of Steatite, interpreted as a priest.
  • Red sandstone: a figure of a male torso is found in Harappa and made of Red sandstone.
  • Terracotta Figures: Found less in number and crude in shape and form. Examples: Mother Goddess, the mask of a horned deity, toys, etc.

13. The Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated between:
  • Aryan Invasion: One theory claims that Indo-European Tribe i.e., Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC.
  • Natural Factors: On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the
    decline of the IVC.
  • The natural factors could be geological and climatic.
  • It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which
    causes earthquakes. Which also changed the course of rivers or dried them up.
  • Another natural reason might be a change in patterns of rainfall or it could have been due to a combination of these natural and anthropogenic causes.
For Prelims: Indus Valley Civilisation, Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE, Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE, Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
For Mains: Discuss the phases of the Indus Valley Civilisation and explain the Political and Social life during the Indus Valley civilization. (250 Words).

Previous year Questions

1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
Source: World History Encyclopedia
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