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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 20 JUNE 2026

 

SICKLE CELL DISEASE

1. Context

President Droupadi Murmu on Friday said that the country would eradicate sickle cell anaemia well before the government-set target of 2047, while calling for collective efforts to raise awareness about the disorder, especially among tribal communities

2. What are Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia?

Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the shape and function of red blood cells. Red blood cells are normally round and flexible, but in people with sickle cell disease, they become sickle-shaped or C-shaped. These sickle-shaped cells can get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow and causing pain, fatigue, and other serious health problems.

Symptoms of sickle cell disease can include:

  • Painful episodes, called crises, that can last for days or even weeks
  • Fatigue
  • Shortness of breath
  • Dizziness
  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Swelling of the hands and feet
  • Anemia (a lack of red blood cells)
  • Frequent infections

Types of Sickle Cell Disease

There are several different types of sickle cell disease, depending on the specific mutations in the haemoglobin gene. The most common type is sickle cell anaemia (HbSS), which occurs when a person inherits two copies of the gene mutation from each parent. Other types of sickle cell disease include sickle cell-beta thalassemia (HbSB), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a beta-thalassemia gene mutation, and sickle cell-C disease (HbSC), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a haemoglobin C gene mutation.

Causes of Sickle Cell Disease

Sickle cell disease is caused by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The mutation causes the haemoglobin to be misshapen, which makes the red blood cells sickle-shaped.

2.1. Thalassaemia

Thalassaemia is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the production of haemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. People with thalassaemia have less haemoglobin than normal, which can lead to anaemia and other health problems.

Types of Thalassaemia

There are two main types of thalassaemia:

  • Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha globin chain of haemoglobin.
  • Beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta globin chain of haemoglobin.

Symptoms of Thalassaemia

The severity of thalassaemia symptoms depends on the type of thalassaemia and the severity of the mutation. Symptoms of thalassaemia can include:

  • Fatigue
  • Pale skin
  • Shortness of breath
  • Dizziness
  • Slow growth
  • Enlarged spleen

Causes of Thalassaemia

Thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is made up of two globin chains, alpha and beta. Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha-globin chain, while beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta-globin chain.

3. How Does the Therapy Work?

  • Both sickle cell disease and thalassaemia are caused by errors in the gene for haemoglobin, a protein in the red blood cells that carry oxygen to organs and tissues.
  • The therapy uses the patient’s own blood stem cells, which are precisely edited using Crispr-Cas9.
  • A gene called BCL11A, which is crucial for switching from foetal to adult haemoglobin, is targeted by the therapy.
  • Foetal haemoglobin, which is naturally present in everyone at birth, does not carry the same abnormalities as adult haemoglobin.
  • The therapy uses the body’s own mechanisms to start producing more of this foetal haemoglobin, alleviating the symptoms of the two conditions.

 3.1. Trial Results

  • Sickle cell disease: 45 people received Casgevy. Only 29 of these patients had been in the trial long enough for the interim analysis on which the approval is based.
  • All but one of these 29 trial participants had no severe pain crises for at least 12 months after treatment.
  • Thalassaemia: The therapy has been administered to 54 persons with thalassaemia for the trial. Of them, 42 were in the trial long enough for the interim analysis. 3
  • 9 of the 42 patients did not need a transfusion for at least 12 months after the treatment. The need for transfusion dropped by 70% in the other three.

4. Treatment Preparation and challenges

  • Casgevy is a one-time treatment for which the doctor has to first collect blood stem cells from the bone marrow using a process called apheresis used to filter out the blood for different components.
  • The cells are then sent to the manufacturing site where it takes about six months for them to be edited and tested.
  • Before a transplant with the edited cells, the doctor gives a conditioning medicine for a few days to clear the bone marrow of other cells that will be replaced by the modified cells.
  • The patient has to stay in the hospital for at least a month so that the edited cells take up residence in the bone marrow and start making red blood cells with normal haemoglobin.
  • Side effects from the treatment are similar to those associated with autologous stem cell transplants, including nausea, fatigue, fever and increased risk of infection.
  • While the therapy shows tremendous potential, the cost remains a significant challenge, with estimates suggesting it could be as high as $2 million per patient. 
  • This poses accessibility issues, especially for individuals in poorer countries.
  • However, experts believe that with more research and development, prices may decrease, and local manufacturing facilities can enhance affordability.
An estimated 30,000-40,000 children in India are born with sickle cell disease every year. India also has the largest number of children with thalassaemia major in the world about 1-1.5 lakh. Dr Chakraborty’s team is also working on gene therapy for sickle cell disease with the government’s big push. The team is currently working on the pre-clinical studies and are likely to enter clinical trial in the next few years.

5. Conclusion

Casgevy's approval marks a significant milestone in Crispr-based therapy. While challenges exist, including pricing and accessibility, ongoing research and potential reductions in costs indicate a promising future for gene therapies. The working gene therapy for sickle cell disease with upcoming clinical trials in the pipeline.

For Prelims: Sickle Cell Disease, thalassaemia, CrisprCas9, Noble Prize, red blood cells, 
For Mains: 
1. Critically analyze the challenges associated with gene therapy, including cost and accessibility, and discuss potential solutions. (250 Words)
 
Previous Year Questions

1. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)

  1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
  2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform.
  3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

A. 1 and 2 only       B. 2 and 3 only          C. 1 and 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
2. Sick cell anemia (Sickle cell anemia) is caused by? (UPSSSC Chakbandi Lekhpal 2019)
A. Deficiency of folic acid
B. Abnormal levels of hemoglobin
C. Deficiency of iron
D. Decreased production of red blood cells (RBCs)
 
 
3. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC 2019)
A. A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
B. A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
C. A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
D. A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
 
 
4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2018)
Terms Sometimes seen in news                 Context/Topic
1. Bell II experiment                                  Artificial
2. Blockchain                                             Digital/Cryptocurrency
3. CRISPR - Cas9                                      Particle Physics
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 3 only            B.  2 only             C. 2 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
5. Einstein got the Nobel Prize for (BPSC 64TH CCE 2018) 
A. relativity     
B.  Bose-Einstein condensation
C. mass-energy equivalence
D. photoelectric effect
E. None of the above/More than one of the above
 

6. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (UPSC CSE 2008)

(a) Max Planck       (b) Albert Einstein          (c) William Henry Bragg         (d) Enrico Fermi

 

7. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (UPSC CSE 2008)

(a) Metallurgy         (b) Meteorology            (c) Environmental protection           (d) Genetics

 

8. Nobel Prize for Economics was instituted in the year _______ (Punjab Patwari 2016)

A. 1984        B. 1962           C. 1948          D. 1968

 
9. Red blood cells (RBCs) have (NDA  2017) 
A. no nucleus, no mitochondria, and no endoplasmic reticulum
B. nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum
C. nucleus, mitochondria but no endoplasmic reticulum
D. no mitochondria but endoplasmic reticulum is present
 
 
10. Which one of the following statements about blood elements is correct? (UPSC CAPF  2018)
A. Red blood cells number is same as that of white blood cells and platelets.
B. The number of white blood cells is more than red blood cells.
C. The number of red blood cells is the highest.
D. The number of red blood cells is lower than platelets.
 
Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-B, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-D, 9-A, 10-C
 
Mains
1. What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? (UPSC 2021)
2. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (UPSC 2021)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 
 

SOUTHWEST MONSOON

 
 
1. Context
 
It has been a fortnight since the official commencement of the southwest monsoon season, but its performance has largely been sub-nominal so far. All-India rainfall stood 38% below average between June 1 and 17
 
2. What is the southwest monsoon?
 
  • The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
  • The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
  • The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
  • The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
  • The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
  • The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon

Mechanism:

  • High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
  • Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
  • Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
The monsoon trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending from the heat low over Pakistan and northwestern India to the Bay of Bengal. It influences the distribution and intensity of the monsoon rains.
 
3. What are easterly and westerly winds?
 
Easterly Winds
 
  • Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
  • Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
  • Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Characteristics:

  • Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
  • Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
  • Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
Westerly Winds
 
  • Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
  • Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
  • They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
  • The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems

Characteristics:

  • Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
  • Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
  • Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
 
 
4.How does monsoon occur in India?

Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.

Here's a concise explanation of the process:

  • Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
  • Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
  • Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
  • Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
  • Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
  • Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
 
5.What are the conditions that determine the onset of monsoon?
 
  • The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
  • Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
  • The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
  • The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
  • The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
  • Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
6.What is the impact of La-Nina and El Nino on monsoon?
 
La Niña and El Niño, both phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, have significant impacts on the monsoon patterns around the world.
 
Here’s how each affects the monsoon:
El Niño
  • El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
  • The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
  •  El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
  • Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
La Niña
  • La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
  • The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
  • La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
  • La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
 
7.Way Forward
 
The intermittent development of a wind shear zone — where winds move with different velocities and directions — along latitudes 20 ° N between central and peninsular India
 
 
 
For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
 
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
 
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
  • The duration of the monsoon indeed decreases from southern India to northern India. The southern part of India experiences the monsoon earlier and for a longer duration compared to the northern part.
  • The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west. The eastern part of the northern plains receives more rainfall compared to the western part, largely due to the influence of the Bay of Bengal branch of the Southwest Monsoon.
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

FREE TRADE AGREEMENT 

1. Context

European Commission’s President Ursula von der Leyen said on Wednesday that the EU will sign the Free Trade Agreement with India by the end of the year.
 

2. About the Free Trade Agreement

  • A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
  • FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
  • The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
  • By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.

3. Types of Free Trade Agreement

  • Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them.  It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
  • Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
  • Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
  • Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
  • Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
  • Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
  • Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.

4. India's Free Trade Agreements

India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others.  India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs. 

  • The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
  • The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
  • The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
  • The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
  • The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
  • The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.

5.  India - UK Free Trade Agreement

5.1. Background

  • Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
  • The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
  • By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
  • India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
  • While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.

5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)

  • The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
  • One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
  • For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
  • It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
  • These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
  • If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
  • In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
  • Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
  • Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
 
For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union, 
For Mains: 
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6
 
Answer: C
 

2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018)

(a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output.
(b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output.
(c) Poverty and unemployment increase.
(d) Imports grow faster than exports.

Answer: C

3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)

  1. Development of infrastructure facilities.
  2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources.
  3. Promotion of exports of services only.

Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?

(a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011)

(a) the money supply is fully controlled
(b) deficit financing takes place
(c) only exports take place
(d) neither exports nor imports take place

Answer: D

5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club.
2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
 
 Source: The Hindu
 
 
 

LOGISTICS SUPPORT AGREEMENT (LSA)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The India-Russia bilateral Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), termed the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS), which had been dragging on for several years, was operationalised in January this year. There was a flutter on social media recently with claims that it allows the stationing of 3,000 Russian troops on Indian soil or vice versa, painting it as a military alliance. However, it is like any LSA, the likes of which India has signed with other countries.
 
2. What are Logistics Support Agreements?
 
 
  • Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) are basic defence cooperation arrangements between countries that facilitate the mutual use of military facilities such as bases and ports for refuelling, repairs, replenishment, and other logistical requirements.
  • These agreements are primarily administrative in nature and specify the circumstances under which such support may be extended, including joint military exercises, training activities, naval port visits, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations.
  • With growing military-to-military engagement and strategic partnerships, LSAs help streamline procedures and minimise bureaucratic hurdles.
  • For example, India and the United States signed the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, which was India’s first logistics support pact of this kind.
  • The agreement establishes a framework for reciprocal access to logistics, supplies, and services during activities such as joint exercises, training programmes, and humanitarian or disaster relief missions.
  • Clarifying the scope of the agreement, then Minister of State for Defence Subhash Bhamre informed Parliament in February 2017 that LEMOA does not permit the establishment of military bases or any permanent basing arrangements.
  • Some exaggerated interpretations suggest that logistics agreements allow countries to station troops on each other’s territory.
  • Applying this logic, it is sometimes argued that if India and Russia could deploy forces on each other’s soil, India and the United States could do the same under LEMOA. However, such claims are incorrect.
  • As clarified by the Defence Ministry, logistics support agreements merely facilitate logistical cooperation and do not authorise the permanent deployment or stationing of troops, a principle that applies to all LSA
 
 
3. What is the Agreement with Russia?
 
 
  • Similar to other logistics support arrangements, the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Support (RELOS) agreement lays down the framework for providing assistance to military units, facilitating port visits by naval vessels, enabling the use of airspace and airfield infrastructure by military aircraft, and organising logistical and technical support for warships, aircraft, and other military equipment of both countries.
  • The agreement was concluded in Moscow on February 18, 2025, and was formally ratified after Russian President Vladimir Putin approved the corresponding federal law on December 15, 2025.
  • According to the Kremlin, the pact establishes procedures governing the deployment of military contingents, naval port calls, and the use of aviation infrastructure and airspace by the armed forces of India and Russia.
  • In broad terms, RELOS encompasses cooperation during joint exercises, training programmes, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations, repair and maintenance facilities, medical assistance, supply of food and technical materials, and reciprocal access to military installations, including ports and airbases, to support personnel operating ships and aircraft.
  • The agreement specifies an upper ceiling of 3,000 personnel, which serves as a broad limit considering the size of military contingents and the number of ships or aircraft involved in mutually agreed engagements.
  • It remains in force for five years and allows for modifications in the future to accommodate evolving requirements. The duration for the deployment of personnel and equipment would depend on the nature and schedule of visits agreed upon by both countries.
  • In practice, India’s defence engagements with several countries are much more extensive. For example, Indian armed forces regularly participate in exercises with the United States and other partners.
  • Officials have clarified that RELOS does not provide for the permanent deployment of troops or military assets.
  • Its provisions are intended to be implemented only during agreed activities such as joint exercises, port visits, or other mutually approved engagements. No arrangement for permanent or long-term stationing forms part of the agreement.
  • A notable feature of RELOS is that it grants India access to Russian military facilities in the Arctic region.
  • This assumes greater significance as both countries seek to deepen cooperation in the Arctic, particularly in view of emerging navigation routes made increasingly accessible by climate change and global warming
 
 
4. Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)
 
 
  • The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) is a bilateral logistics support arrangement signed between India and the United States in 2016.
  • It establishes a framework that enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s military facilities for refuelling, replenishment, repairs, and other logistical requirements on a reciprocal basis.
  • The agreement is intended to facilitate cooperation during joint military exercises, training activities, port visits, and humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations.
  • LEMOA simplifies administrative procedures and enhances interoperability between the two militaries by providing access to logistics supplies and services when required.
  • However, the agreement does not permit the establishment of military bases or permanent basing arrangements on each other’s territory.
  • This clarification was provided by the Government of India, which emphasized that the pact is purely logistical in nature and does not involve the stationing of troops or military assets.
  • As one of the key foundational defence agreements between India and the United States, LEMOA has strengthened strategic cooperation and improved the ability of both countries to undertake coordinated operations and respond effectively to regional and humanitarian contingencies
 
5. Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) Signed by India with Various Countries
 
 

India has entered into several Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) with strategic partners such as the United States, France, Australia, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. These arrangements facilitate reciprocal access to military facilities and enhance defence cooperation, interoperability, and maritime security.

  • India–United States
 

As part of efforts to deepen defence relations, India and the United States have concluded three key foundational agreements:

  • Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), signed in 2016, enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s logistics infrastructure for refuelling, replenishment, maintenance, and other support services. The agreement significantly expands the operational reach of the Indian Navy. For instance, access to American facilities such as Guam enhances India's ability to sustain operations across distant waters.
  • Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) was concluded in 2018. It facilitates the use of secure and encrypted communication systems, thereby enabling the effective deployment of advanced military platforms, including the P-8I maritime surveillance aircraft operated by the Indian Navy.
  • Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), signed in November 2020, provides India with access to U.S. geospatial intelligence and satellite data. This improves the precision and targeting capability of long-range weapons and strengthens situational awareness.
  • India–France
  • The logistics agreement between India and France seeks to enhance strategic cooperation and contribute to peace and stability in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It also enables closer collaboration between the two navies, including the exchange of maritime intelligence and improved operational coordination.
 
  • India–Australia
 
  • India and Australia signed the Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA) on June 4, 2020. Notably, it was the first bilateral agreement concluded through a virtual summit. The pact reflects the shared commitment of both countries to strengthening maritime cooperation and maintaining a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
 
  • India–Japan

 

  • In September 2020, India and Japan signed the Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA). The agreement facilitates reciprocal logistical support between the armed forces of the two nations and promotes closer defence cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
 
  • India–Singapore

 

  • India and Singapore concluded a logistics support agreement on June 1, 2020. The arrangement covers a broad spectrum of military assets, including warships, submarines, aircraft, and shipborne helicopters, thereby enhancing naval cooperation between the two countries.
 
  • India–South Korea
  • India signed a Mutual Logistics Support Agreement with South Korea in September 2019. The agreement has expanded the operational footprint of the Indian Navy, extending its access and presence towards the northern reaches of the South China Sea and strengthening maritime engagement in East Asia.

 

 
 
7.  Way Forward
 
 
Overall, these logistics agreements have enhanced India's military interoperability with partner countries, expanded the operational reach of its armed forces, and reinforced its strategic presence across the Indo-Pacific region.

Although the partner countries differ, the underlying framework and objectives of these arrangements remain largely identical. They are intended to facilitate joint exercises, training activities, port visits, and other forms of military cooperation by simplifying access to logistical resources and support services.

In addition, India has a logistics support arrangement with Oman, which operates within the broader framework of the bilateral defence cooperation agreement between the two countries. Together, these agreements have enhanced the operational reach of the Indian armed forces and strengthened India's strategic partnerships across different regions.

 

 

For Prelims: Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA),  Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), India and Russia
 
For Mains: GS II - International relations
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

POLLUTION AND SUMMER

 
 
 
1. Context
 
 

In March, the Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) revoked all curbs under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), signalling the end of the winter air pollution in Delhi.A month later, as temperatures rose, it reimposed Stage 1 of the GRAP to combat summer air pollution. It was briefly revoked and reimposed again in May, while North India was reeling under heatwaves.

 

2. Why Are Urban Areas Experiencing Pollution Episodes During Summer?

 

  • Cities such as Delhi and those across the Indo-Gangetic Plain are typically associated with severe winter smog. During winter, low temperatures, weak winds, and the region’s basin-like geography prevent pollutants from dispersing, causing them to accumulate near the surface.
  • In contrast, summer conditions generally support better air quality. Stronger winds, intermittent thunderstorms that help remove pollutants, and higher temperatures promote vertical mixing of air, allowing pollutants to disperse more effectively.
  • Nevertheless, Delhi recorded significant pollution levels during the summer of 2026. Between April 1 and May 31, daily average PM10 concentrations exceeded the 24-hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 100 µg/m³ on 54 days.
  • Furthermore, at least one Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Station (CAAQMS) reported hourly ozone concentrations above the prescribed limit of 180 µg/m³ on 40 days.
  • This trend is not confined to Delhi alone. Several major Indian cities—including Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, and Kolkata—also experienced episodes of elevated PM10 and ozone concentrations during the same period.
  • The intensity and frequency of these pollution events varied depending on local factors such as vehicular emissions, road dust, construction activities, industrial discharges, and dust storms.
  • Mumbai, for example, has witnessed persistently high PM10 and ozone levels in recent years, largely driven by rapid construction, traffic congestion, and dust generation.
  • Although Chennai experiences fewer PM10 exceedances, its dense traffic and high summer temperatures contribute to frequent ozone formation, making it particularly vulnerable to ozone pollution.
 
3. How Does Summer Air Pollution Differ from Winter Air Pollution?
 
 
  • The nature and causes of air pollution vary significantly between summer and winter.
  • During winter, pollution levels tend to rise because of unfavorable meteorological conditions.
  • Low temperatures, weak wind speeds, temperature inversions, and reduced atmospheric mixing trap pollutants close to the ground. As a result, particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) accumulates, leading to dense smog episodes, especially in cities across the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
  • In contrast, summer generally provides conditions that help disperse pollutants. Stronger winds, greater atmospheric mixing, and occasional rainfall facilitate the dilution and removal of particulate matter.
  • However, summer brings a different challenge—ground-level ozone pollution. Intense sunlight and high temperatures trigger chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), producing ozone.
  • Consequently, while particulate pollution may decline compared to winter, ozone concentrations often increase during hot and sunny periods.
  • Another key distinction lies in pollution sources. Winter pollution is often aggravated by biomass burning, domestic heating, and stagnant weather conditions.
  • Summer pollution, on the other hand, is more strongly influenced by vehicular emissions, industrial activities, road and construction dust, and photochemical reactions driven by solar radiation.
  • Therefore, winter air pollution is primarily characterized by the accumulation of particulate matter due to stagnant atmospheric conditions, whereas summer air pollution is marked by enhanced ozone formation and episodic increases in particulate matter from dust, traffic, and local emission sources
 
4. How Does Summer Pollution Differ from Winter Pollution?
 
  • Winter air pollution is largely characterized by high concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), whereas summer pollution is more strongly influenced by coarser PM10 particles and elevated ozone levels.
  • Several pollution sources—including vehicular emissions, industrial activities, waste burning, agricultural residue burning, construction operations, and deteriorating road surfaces—contribute to poor air quality throughout the year. Seasonal factors, however, alter the dominant pollutants.
  • During winter, additional emissions from biomass used for heating worsen particulate pollution. In summer, dust storms often raise PM10 concentrations, while intense heat and abundant sunlight promote the formation of ground-level ozone.
  • Unlike particulate matter, ozone is a secondary pollutant and is not released directly into the atmosphere. It is produced through chemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides (NOx), primarily emitted by vehicles, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) originating from industrial processes, vehicle exhaust, paints, solvents, and other sources.
  • These reactions accelerate under strong sunlight and high temperatures, making hot summer days particularly conducive to ozone generation.
  • Elevated levels of both ozone and particulate matter can adversely affect respiratory health and increase the risk of various air-related illnesses
 
5. What Leads to Elevated PM10 Levels in India?

 

  • During summer, intense heating over the Indian subcontinent creates a vast low-pressure zone that often stretches westward toward Iran. The interaction between this low-pressure system and nearby high-pressure regions generates strong, hot winds.
  • These winds can trigger large-scale dust storms and transport dust from the Thar Desert and parts of West Asia across northern and central India, sometimes reaching as far as the Bay of Bengal.
  • Such events can cause PM10 concentrations to remain elevated for several days, similar to the widespread dust storms that affected northern India in 2018.
  • Apart from these large regional events, India also experiences smaller and short-lived dust storms known as andhi. These storms are usually associated with thunderstorms.
  • When powerful downdrafts from thunderstorms strike the ground, they lift loose soil and dust into the atmosphere, creating fast-moving dust clouds that generally dissipate within a few hours.
  • While northern India frequently experiences dust transport associated with hot summer winds, cities such as Mumbai and Hyderabad are more likely to encounter dust episodes linked to localized thunderstorm activity.
  • Human-induced factors further intensify PM10 pollution. Construction and demolition activities often increase after seasonal restrictions under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) are relaxed following winter.
  • Inadequate dust-control measures at construction sites allow significant amounts of particulate matter to enter the atmosphere.
  • Additionally, the movement of vehicles over damaged or unpaved roads resuspends accumulated dust, especially during the dry summer season, further contributing to higher PM10 concentrations
 
 
6. Managing Summer Air Pollution: The Way Forward

 

  • Although natural dust sources cannot be eliminated, their occurrence can be anticipated through effective forecasting systems. Following the severe dust storms of 2018 and recurring smog crises in earlier years, Delhi established the Air Quality Early Warning System (AQEWS), which now operates throughout the year.
  • The system has subsequently been expanded to cities such as Jaipur and Mumbai, enabling authorities to forecast various air pollutants several days in advance.
  • In addition to providing detailed meteorological updates for Delhi, AQEWS also issues three-day Air Quality Index (AQI) forecasts for nearly 140 cities across India.
  • Similarly, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) releases weather forecasts multiple times daily at the national level.
  • These forecasting tools should be leveraged by local administrations to disseminate timely warnings regarding dust storms, ozone episodes, and deteriorating air quality, allowing residents to take precautionary measures and limit their exposure.
  • While natural sources require preparedness, pollution from human activities can be addressed through stricter enforcement and management practices. Dust-control measures at construction and demolition sites should remain in force throughout the year rather than being limited to the winter season.
  • Research conducted by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) indicates that reducing the movement of heavy vehicles within construction zones can significantly decrease local particulate pollution.
  • In Mumbai, the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), in collaboration with CEEW, has implemented the Air Quality Decision Support System (AQDSS) to monitor construction-related emissions. Since October 2025, the system has assisted authorities in taking corrective action at more than 1,000 construction sites across the city.
  • Addressing ozone pollution requires targeted reductions in emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which originate primarily from vehicles, industries, solvents, paints, and fuel combustion.
  • This can be achieved through cleaner transportation systems, stricter emission standards, and improved regulatory compliance.
  • Public participation can also make a difference. Initiatives such as Delhi’s “Red Light On, Gaadi Off” campaign, which encourages motorists to switch off their engines while waiting at traffic signals, help reduce unnecessary emissions that contribute to ozone formation.
  • However, isolated interventions are insufficient. Indian cities require comprehensive and long-term summer air-quality management strategies. Delhi has implemented a dedicated Summer Action Plan since 2022, demonstrating a proactive approach.
  • Similar frameworks should be adopted by other urban centres, integrating pollution forecasting, health advisories, construction and road-dust mitigation, and measures to curb ozone-forming emissions.
  • Although summer weather often facilitates the dispersion of some pollutants, elevated temperatures and intense sunlight create conditions that favour the formation of others, particularly ozone.
  • Therefore, urban air-quality management must address both winter and summer pollution challenges with equal urgency and sustained policy attention
 
 
For Prelims: Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM), Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), PM10
 
For Mains: GSIII - Environment and Ecology
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index? (2016)

  1. Carbon dioxide 
  2. Carbon monoxide 
  3. Nitrogen dioxide 
  4. Sulfur dioxide 
  5. Methane 

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only 

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only 

(c) 1, 4 and 5 only 

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Answer (b)
Source: The Hindu
 
 

INDIA'S LABOUR MARKET

 
 
 
1. Context
 
Every year, about 7-10 million young Indians enter the labour market. They are better educated than any generation before them — the average years of formal schooling for those aged 15 and above has reached 10 years nationally — and with hopes and expectations to match.The recently released Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2025 report offers some key insights.
 
 
2. Recent trends in Employment
 
 
  • India’s labour market indicators remain strong, with the Labour Force Participation Rate recorded at 59%, the Workforce Participation Rate at 57%, and unemployment at only 3%.
  • Youth unemployment has shown a downward trend since 2024 in both rural and urban regions. In addition, successive Monthly PLFS reports during 2025 highlight a steady rise in women’s workforce participation.
  • Rural female LFPR continued to improve through September 2025, reaching the highest level observed since May, indicating a consistent positive trend across multiple survey cycles.
  • Employment quality has likewise improved over time. The proportion of workers engaged in regular salaried jobs increased from 22% to 24%, benefiting both men and women. At the same time, the share of self-employed workers declined from 58% to 56%.
  • Since salaried employment generally offers greater income stability and social security benefits, this transition represents one of the most significant developments reflected in the 2025 labour data.
  • Income patterns further support these improvements, especially for women workers. Earnings among women in regular salaried jobs rose by 7%, slightly higher than the 6% increase recorded for men.
  • In self-employment, women’s earnings increased by 9% compared to 8% for men. Similarly, women engaged in casual labour witnessed a 5% rise in wages, whereas male wages in this category remained largely stagnant.
  • Despite these gains, gender disparities in earnings continue to persist. Available data suggests that women receive nearly 76% of male earnings in salaried occupations, about 69% in casual work, and only 36% in self-employment.
  • Although significant gaps remain, the growing movement toward salaried employment is gradually generating more meaningful economic benefits for women.
  • Economic transformation is also reshaping employment patterns. Agriculture now accounts for 43% of total employment, while manufacturing and services contribute roughly 12% and 13%, respectively.
  • Increasing numbers of young workers, especially women, are joining manufacturing and service industries.
  • Moreover, occupational segregation based on caste and gender is less pronounced among younger generations than older ones, reflecting the long-term impact of improved educational access and greater social mobility, which are now contributing to more inclusive labour market outcomes
 
 
3. Gaps in Skills and Job Creation
 
 
  • A major concern continues to be the transition from education to employment. India has greatly increased access to higher education, enabling students from a wider range of economic backgrounds to pursue tertiary studies.
  • However, important gaps still persist. Between 2004 and 2023, nearly 5 million graduates entered the labour market every year, yet only around 2.8 million were able to obtain employment of any form.
  • Insufficient access to structured skill development remains another obstacle. Merely 4% of people in the 15–59 age group have undergone formal vocational or technical training.
  • At the same time, labour force participation among trained individuals is considerably higher — about 83% for men and 51% for women — highlighting the strong connection between skill acquisition and employment opportunities. This demonstrates the need to expand and strengthen skill-training initiatives on a much larger scale.
  • Ensuring long-term participation of women in the workforce is another critical issue. While men outside the labour force mostly identified education as the reason for non-participation, women largely pointed to childcare and domestic responsibilities.
  • This reflects deeper structural inequalities arising from the unequal burden of unpaid household work.
  • For example, self-employed urban men work nearly 17.5 hours more per week than women, while among regular salaried employees the gap stands at roughly 7.9 hours weekly, illustrating the disproportionate dual burden of paid and unpaid labour carried by women.
  • A further concern relates to the NEET population — youth who are neither in education, employment, nor training. Approximately one-fourth of individuals aged 15–29 belong to this category.
  • Since they are excluded from official unemployment statistics, the scale of the issue often remains understated. If not addressed promptly, prolonged disengagement may push many young people into long-term detachment from the labour market
 
 
4. What is the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)?
 
  • The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is India’s main survey for understanding the condition of employment and unemployment in the country. It is conducted by the National Statistical Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
  • The survey was introduced in 2017 to provide regular and reliable information about the labour market, replacing the earlier employment surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office.
  • The need for PLFS arose because India’s economy and labour market were changing rapidly, but employment data was not available frequently enough.
  • Policymakers required updated information to understand how many people were working, how many were unemployed, and how labour patterns were changing across rural and urban areas.
  • To address this gap, PLFS was designed to provide both annual and quarterly estimates on employment-related indicators.
  • The survey studies the participation of people in economic activities. It measures how many individuals are employed, how many are actively searching for work, and how many remain outside the labour force.
  • Through this, it calculates important indicators such as the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR). These indicators help in assessing the overall health of the economy and the availability of jobs.
  • PLFS also provides detailed insights into the nature of employment in India. It classifies workers into categories such as self-employed persons, regular salaried employees, and casual labourers.
  • This distinction is important because different forms of employment offer different levels of income security, social protection, and job stability. For example, regular salaried employment is generally considered more secure than casual labour.
  • Another important feature of PLFS is that it captures differences across gender, age groups, education levels, and regions.
  • It highlights issues such as women’s participation in the workforce, youth unemployment, rural–urban disparities, and shifts in employment from agriculture to manufacturing and services. Because of this, the survey has become an essential tool for analysing structural changes in the Indian economy.
  • The survey uses different approaches to measure employment status. The “Usual Status” method examines a person’s employment situation over a longer reference period, while the “Current Weekly Status” method looks at whether a person worked for at least one hour during the previous seven days. These methods help provide a broader and more accurate picture of employment conditions.
  • Today, PLFS serves as the most important official source of labour market data in India. Governments, economists, researchers, and policymakers rely on it to formulate employment policies, assess economic performance, design welfare programmes, and evaluate the impact of reforms on workers and livelihoods
Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP)
 
 

Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) refers to the proportion of women in the working-age population who are either employed or actively seeking employment. In simple terms, it measures how many women are participating in economic activities within a country.

It is usually expressed through the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR), which indicates the percentage of women who are part of the labour force compared to the total female population within a specified age group. Women who are working in jobs, self-employment, farming, business activities, or even looking for work are included in the labour force. However, women who are neither working nor searching for employment are considered outside the labour force.

Female labour force participation is considered an important indicator of economic development, gender equality, and social progress. A higher participation rate generally reflects better access to education, employment opportunities, skill development, mobility, and financial independence for women. It also contributes to higher household incomes, poverty reduction, and overall economic growth.

In India, female labour force participation has traditionally remained lower than that of men due to several social, cultural, and economic factors. Many women are engaged in unpaid domestic work such as childcare, cooking, and household responsibilities, which are not counted as economic activities in official surveys. Other factors such as lack of safe transportation, limited access to formal jobs, wage inequality, social norms, and interruptions caused by marriage or motherhood also affect women’s participation in the workforce.
 
5. Way Forward
 
 
The PLFS 2025 findings indicate that India’s labour market is showing signs of positive progress. Nevertheless, converting these improvements into sustained, productivity-driven economic growth will require focused policy measures. This includes expanding industry-oriented skill development programmes, promoting women’s participation in the workforce through gender-sensitive policies, and creating stronger access to secure employment supported by broader social protection systems and greater emphasis on green industries. In addition, specialised initiatives such as apprenticeship programmes will play an important role in bringing NEET youth back into productive economic activity
 
 
 
For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions

1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
 
 
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)

(a) large number of people remain unemployed
(b) alternative employment is not available
(c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
(d) productivity of workers is low

 

4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries.

Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio.

Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018)

A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D

Mains

1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Hindu

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