• The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
• BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
• The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
• The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements

3. Evolution of Brahmos

• During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
• In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
• This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
• In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
• This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
• Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher

4.Significance of Brahmos

• The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
• Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
• As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
• Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
• Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
• In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
• However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
• Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos

5. Types of  BrahMos

• The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
• To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
• Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
• Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
• Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
• These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
• Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
• Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
• These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
• Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
• The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
• Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam

6. Brahmos Missile Series

The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.

Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:

• BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.

• BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.

• BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.

• BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.

• BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.

• BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.

• BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)

 

 

1. Context

 

Net FDI rose to $6.6 billion in April 2026, its highest level in nearly five years, driven by a 65% surge in gross inflows, an analysis of official data shows.

 

2. FDI in India

• India's net foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows experienced a decline, decreasing by nearly 31% to $25.5 billion during the first 10 months of the 2023-24 fiscal year. The Finance Ministry attributed this decline to a broader trend of slowing investments in developing countries, while expressing optimism for a potential increase in investments in the current calendar year.
• Although global FDI flows overall saw a 3% rise to approximately $1.4 trillion in 2023, economic uncertainty and elevated interest rates impacted global investment, resulting in a 9% decrease in FDI flows to developing nations, as outlined in the Ministry's February assessment of economic performance.
• Reflecting the global trend of reduced FDI flows to developing countries, gross FDI inflows to India also experienced a slight decline, from $61.7 billion to $59.5 billion during the period from April 2023 to January 2024. In terms of net inflows, the corresponding figures were $25.5 billion versus $36.8 billion. The decrease in net inflows was primarily attributed to an increase in repatriation, while the decline in gross inflows was minimal.
• While a modest uptick in global FDI flows is anticipated for the current calendar year, attributed to a decrease in inflation and borrowing costs in major markets that could stabilize financing conditions for international investment, significant risks persist, according to the Ministry. These risks include geopolitical tensions, elevated debt levels in numerous countries, and concerns regarding further fragmentation of the global economy

 

3. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) refers to the investment made by individuals, businesses, or governments from one country (the home country) into another country (the host country) with the objective of establishing a lasting interest or significant degree of influence in the foreign business or enterprise

Key Aspects:

• FDI involves the transfer of funds and resources from one country to another. This capital inflow can help stimulate economic growth in the host country by providing funds for investment in infrastructure, technology, and other areas.
• FDI often leads to the creation of jobs in the host country. When foreign companies establish subsidiaries or invest in existing businesses, they typically hire local employees, which can help reduce unemployment and improve living standards
• Foreign investors often bring advanced technologies, processes, and management practices to the host country. This technology transfer can enhance the host country's productivity, competitiveness, and industrial capabilities
• FDI can provide access to new markets for both the host country and the investing company. Foreign investors can tap into the host country's consumer base, while the host country gains access to the investing company's global distribution networks.
• FDI can contribute to overall economic development in the host country by promoting industrialization, improving infrastructure, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.

4.FDI Routes in India

India has several routes through which Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) can enter the country. These routes are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), and they define the conditions, limits, and sectors in which FDI is allowed

1. Automatic Route: Under the automatic route, FDI is allowed without the need for prior approval from the RBI or the government. Investors only need to notify the RBI within a specified time frame after the investment is made. This route is available for most sectors, except those that are prohibited or require government approval.

2. Government Route: In sectors or activities that are not covered under the automatic route, FDI requires government approval. Investors must apply for approval through the Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal (FIFP) or the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), depending on the sector.

4.1. Examples

• Under the automatic route, FDI of up to 100% is allowed for manufacturing of automobiles and components.
• For the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route.
• In single-brand retail trading, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% allowed under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required.
• Multi-brand retail trading (supermarkets and department stores) with FDI is permitted in some states, subject to certain conditions and restrictions. The FDI limit is typically capped at 51%.
• FDI in the insurance sector is allowed up to 74%, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is needed
• In the telecom sector, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required
• In the defense sector, FDI up to 74% is allowed under the automatic route, with government approval required for investments beyond 49%
• In most segments of the media and broadcasting sector, including print and digital media, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route

4.2.Sectors where FDI Prohibited

• FDI is prohibited in the atomic energy sector, which includes activities related to the production of atomic energy and nuclear power generation.
• FDI is generally prohibited in the gambling and betting industry, which includes casinos and online betting platforms
• FDI is not allowed in the lottery business, except for state-run lotteries
• FDI is prohibited in chit funds, which are traditional Indian savings and credit schemes.
•  Nidhi companies are non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) that facilitate mutual benefit funds. FDI is typically not permitted in these entities
• While FDI is allowed in single-brand retail trading, it is generally prohibited in multi-brand retail trading of agricultural products. Some states have allowed it under specific conditions, but this remains a highly regulated area.
• FDI is not allowed in the trading of transferable development rights (TDRs) pertaining to the construction of real estate

5. Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs)

Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) refer to foreign individuals, institutions, or funds that invest in financial assets in a country, such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities. FPIs are distinct from Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs), who typically make long-term investments in companies and assets to establish a lasting interest

Key Aspects:

• FPIs invest in a country's financial markets, primarily by buying and selling securities traded on stock exchanges and fixed-income instruments like bonds and government securities
• FPIs often seek to diversify their investment portfolios by spreading their investments across different asset classes, sectors, and countries. This diversification helps manage risk and enhance returns
• FPIs have the flexibility to buy and sell securities in the secondary market, providing liquidity to the market and contributing to price discovery
• FPIs typically have a shorter investment horizon compared to Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs). They may engage in short-term trading or hold securities for a few months to a few years.
• FPIs are subject to regulatory frameworks and restrictions in the countries where they invest. These regulations are designed to ensure that foreign investments do not pose undue risks to the local financial markets and economy.

6.Foreign Portfolio vs. Foreign Direct Investment

 

FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment)	FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)
FPI involves the purchase of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities in a foreign country. These investments are typically made with the intention of earning returns on capital and do not result in significant control or ownership of the underlying businesses	FDI entails making an investment in a foreign country with the primary objective of establishing a lasting interest and significant control or influence over a business enterprise or physical assets. FDI often involves the acquisition of a substantial ownership stake (typically at least 10%) in a company or the establishment of new business operations.
FPI is generally characterized by a shorter investment horizon. Investors in FPI may engage in trading and portfolio rebalancing activities, and their investments are often more liquid. The focus is on earning capital gains and income from investments.	FDI is characterized by a longer-term commitment. Investors in FDI intend to engage in the day-to-day management or decision-making of the business, contribute to its growth and development, and generate profits over an extended period.
FPI investors typically have little to no influence or control over the companies in which they invest. They are passive investors who participate in the financial markets and rely on market dynamics to drive returns.	FDI investors actively participate in the management and decision-making of the businesses they invest in. They often seek to exercise control over company operations and strategy, which may include appointing board members or key executives.
FPI investments are often made through financial instruments like stocks, bonds, and securities. Investors may use instruments like mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs) to gain exposure to foreign markets	FDI investments involve a direct equity stake in a company, either through share acquisition or the establishment of a subsidiary or branch in the host country. FDI can also involve the purchase of real assets such as land, factories, or infrastructure
FPI can provide short-term capital inflows, but it may be more susceptible to market volatility and sudden capital outflows. It may not have as direct an impact on job creation and economic development as FDI.	FDI often contributes to long-term economic development by creating jobs, stimulating infrastructure development, transferring technology and expertise, and enhancing the competitiveness of local industries
FPI investments are subject to regulations that vary by country and may include foreign ownership limits, reporting requirements, and tax considerations.	FDI is subject to regulations that can be more stringent and may involve government approval, sector-specific conditions, and investment protection measures

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Both Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. (UPSC CSE 2011)   Which one of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two? A.FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital B.FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors C.FDI flows only into the secondary markets, while FII targets primary market D.FII is considered to the more stable than FDI   Answer (B)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREA (ESA)

 

 

1. Context

 

Twelve years after it issued the first draft notification, the Centre is finally ready to finalise and notify the demarcation of Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) in the Western Ghats region, at least in the three states in which contentious issues have more or less been resolved

 

 

2. What is an ecologically sensitive area?

 

 

• An Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) is a region that possesses unique and fragile environmental characteristics and therefore requires special protection from activities that could cause irreversible ecological damage.
• These areas are rich in biodiversity, provide important ecosystem services, and often support rare or endangered species of plants and animals.
• Because of their ecological significance, any developmental activities in such regions need to be carefully regulated to ensure that economic growth does not come at the cost of environmental degradation.
• The idea behind declaring an area as ecologically sensitive is not to completely stop human activities, but to strike a balance between conservation and development.
• Certain activities that can have severe environmental impacts—such as mining, quarrying, large-scale industries, thermal power plants, or extensive deforestation—are either prohibited or strictly regulated.
• At the same time, sustainable activities like agriculture, horticulture, eco-tourism, and traditional livelihoods are generally encouraged so that local communities can continue to benefit from the resources without destroying them.
• In India, the concept of Ecologically Sensitive Areas derives from the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Central Government can notify such areas to provide them with an additional layer of protection.
• A notable example is the Western Ghats, one of the world's eight “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity.
• Parts of the Western Ghats have been proposed and notified as Ecologically Sensitive Areas to preserve their rich flora and fauna, maintain water security, regulate climate, and ensure the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem

 

3. Which state has the highest number of ecologically sensitive zones in India?

 

• Maharashtra has the highest number of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) in India. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has identified and notified the maximum number of ecologically sensitive zones in the state under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• This is primarily because Maharashtra has a large number of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and tiger reserves, many of which lie within the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats.
• The state's varied landscapes and rich flora and fauna necessitate the creation of numerous buffer zones to protect these ecosystems from harmful developmental activities

 

4. Who declares ecologically sensitive areas?

 

 

• The Forest Survey of India (FSI) is the apex national institution functioning under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and is entrusted with the periodic assessment and monitoring of the country’s forest resources.
• Besides conducting forest inventories, the organization also undertakes training, research, and extension activities.
• Established on June 1, 1981, FSI replaced the Pre-investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR), which had been launched in 1965 by the Government of India with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• In November 2013, acting on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, the Central Government invoked the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to restrict the establishment and expansion of activities such as mining, quarrying, sand extraction, thermal power projects, large-scale construction, townships, and highly polluting red-category industries.
• The issuance of final Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) notifications further strengthens the legal framework aimed at safeguarding these environmentally fragile regions.

 

 

5. Which are the states where the areas to be demarcated as ESA?

 

The proposed Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) in the Western Ghats spans six states. Based on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, approximately 56,825 sq. km of the Western Ghats has been identified for demarcation as ESA. These states are:

• Gujarat
• Maharashtra
• Goa
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Tamil Nadu

Among these, the largest proposed ESA area lies in Karnataka (20,668 sq. km), followed by Maharashtra (17,340 sq. km) and Kerala (about 9,993 sq. km)

 

6. Where do the Western Ghats stretch from?

 

• The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, form a continuous mountain chain running parallel to the western coast of India.
• They stretch for about 1,600 kilometres from the Tapti (Tapi) River valley in Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula.
• Along their course, they pass through six states—Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
• The mountain range covers an area of approximately 1,60,000 sq. km and acts as a major watershed, giving rise to several important peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Tungabhadra.
• Owing to their exceptional biodiversity and high degree of endemism, the Western Ghats are recognized as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biodiversity and have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

 

 

7. Significance of Western Ghats

 

The Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, hold immense ecological, climatic, cultural, and economic significance:

 

• The Western Ghats are one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity. They host over 7,400 species of flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insect species, and 290 freshwater fish species, many of which are endemic.
• A significant proportion of the species found in the Western Ghats are endemic, meaning they are not found anywhere else in the world. This includes many unique species of plants, animals, and microorganisms
• The region provides crucial ecosystem services, such as water purification, climate regulation, soil stabilization, and carbon sequestration
• The Western Ghats play a critical role in the Indian monsoon system. They intercept the moisture-laden winds from the southwest, causing heavy rainfall on the western side, which supports lush forests and agriculture
• The forests of the Western Ghats act as a climate buffer, moderating temperatures and maintaining regional climate stability
• The Western Ghats are the source of numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, which provide water to millions of people in peninsular India. These rivers are crucial for drinking water, irrigation, and hydropower
• The Western Ghats are home to numerous indigenous communities and tribal groups who have lived in harmony with the environment for centuries. These communities have rich cultural traditions and knowledge systems linked to the forests and biodiversity
• Many areas in the Western Ghats are considered sacred by local communities and host numerous temples, shrines, and pilgrimage sites.
• The Western Ghats support diverse agricultural systems, including spice plantations (pepper, cardamom), tea, coffee, and rubber. These crops are economically significant both domestically and for export

 

8.Way forward

 

Though the negotiations with Kerala and Karnataka are continuing, the Centre is learnt to be preparing to notify the ESA in the states where an agreement on this issue has either been achieved, or is close to being finalised. This is different from the previous attempts in which the Centre had issued draft notifications for ESAs in all the states together

 

 

 

For Prelims: Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Landslides, Flash floods For Mains: GS 1 - Indian Geography

 

 

Previous year questions 1. Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022) 1. These occur only on gentle slopes during rain. 2. They generally occur in clay-rich soil. 3. Earthquakes trigger landslides. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2         B. 2 and 3            C. 1 and 3              D. 1, 2 and 3  Answer: (B) For Mains: 1. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (250 words) (2021)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

 

1. Context

 The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has sent nearly 5,000-year-old skeletons unearthed at Haryana’s Rakhigarhi, the largest known site of the Harappan civilisation, for scientific examination and facial reconstruction.

 

2. Harappan Civilisation

• The Harappan/ Indus Valley civilization was the first urban civilization in South Asia, contemporaneous with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
• It was larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia civilizations. First site excavated: Harappa site by Dayaram Sahni in 1921.
• John Marshall: first scholar to use the term Indus Civilisation. Most accepted timeline: 2500 BC-1750 BC (Carbon-14 Dating).
• Period: India Civilization belongs to the proto-historic period- Chalcolithic Age/Bronze Age. Heartland of Indus Civilization: Harappa-Ghaggar- Mohenjo Daro axis.
• Indus sites found in Afghanistan: Shortughai and Mundigaq.
• Capital cities: Harappa, Mohenjodaro.
• Port cities: Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
• Areas covered: Harappan civilizationtion was triangular in shape and was the largest among the three ancient urban civilization the other two being ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). It roughly covers modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan.
• Father of Indian archaeology: Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Image Source: WEB

3. Four phases of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)

3.1 Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE

• This stage is located in eastern Balochistan.
• Excavations at Mehrgarh- northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of Pre- Harappan culture.
• The earliest evidence of farming and herding is in South Asia.
  This shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation. Nomadic people began to lead settled agricultural life.

3.2 Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE

• Characterized by rudimentary town planning in the form of muddy structures and elementary treat hearts and craft
• Also related to Hakra Phase, identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra valley.
• Village settlements in plain areas; Gradual growth of towns in Indus Valley.
• The transition from rural to urban life in this period.
• Indus script dates back to 3000 BC (This script is still undeciphered) Sites of Amri and Kot diji remain evidence for this stage.

3.3 Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE

• Marked by a well-developed town with a burnt brick structure established foreign trade crafts of various types.
• Excavation at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features proves this the phase of evolution.
• Slow southward migration of the South Asian monsoon allowed villages to develop by taming floods of the Indus and tributaries.

3.4 Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE

• It was the declining phase. During this several cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared.
• A gradual decay of significant urban Traits is noticed. Reduction in rainfall triggered a reorganization into large urban centers.
• Mature Harappan civilization was an ‘a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions on Borders of India and Pakistan’- According to D.A. Lichtenstein
• Large urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwal, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal. Excavation at Lothal revealed this stage of evolution.
• Multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of IVC: Culture was in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP; Jhukar culture in Sindh, Rangpur culture was in Gujarat.
• The latest phases of Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra.
• The largest late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra

4. Town planning and structure

• The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles. Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (contemporary Egyptian dried bricks were used).
• The city was divided into two parts, the city on a raised platform, known as Upper Citadel & the lower town known as Lower Citadel (working-class quarters).
• A fortified citadel was found, except in Chanhudaro. Most buildings have private wells and properly ventilated bathrooms.
• Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces for rulers, unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilization.
• Evidence of an Advanced drainage system. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.
• The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height.

5. Agriculture

• Main crops: Wheat and Barley. Evidence of the cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat) only.
• Other crops: Dates, Mustard, Sesamum, Cotton, Rai, Peas, etc.
• First to produce cotton in the world and used it for textiles, Called Sindon by the Greeks.
  Used animal-drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles.
• Gabarbands or Nalas enclosed by dams were found but channel or canal irrigation was
  probably not practiced.
• Produced sufficient food grains and cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in granaries for wages and emergencies same as in Mesopotamia.

6. Domestication of Animals

• Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, and camels domesticated.
• Humped bulls were favored by the Harappans. Neither horse centered nor were they aware of it, but evidence of horses is found in Surkotada, Mohenjo Daro, and Lothal.
• The lion was not known.  Elephants and Rhinoceros (Amari) were well known.

7. Technology and Craft

• This is known as the first urbanization in India. Along with stone, they were well acquainted with copper, silver, gold, and bronze (occasionally mixed arsenic with copper instead of tin).
• Iron was not known to the people.
• Important crafts: spinning (Spindle whorls), bricklaying, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter’s wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
• They were aware of the use of the wheel.

8. Trade and Commerce

• The importance of Trade is established by the presence of Granaries, seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures.
• They engaged in inter-regional as well as foreign trade. Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluha i.e. ancient name given to the Indus region & mentions two intermediate trading stations- Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
• Used boats and bullock carts for transportation. No metallic money was in circulation and trade was conducted by means of barter.
• Import: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Jade, Steatite.
• Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, beads from Chanhudaro, conch-shell from Lothal, ivory products, copper, etc.

9. Social Organisations

• Hierarchy in urban habitation. Merchants and priests were an important class of this period.
• Harappans were fashion-conscious. Different hairstyles and wearing a beard were popular.
• The use of cosmetics was common (Cinnabar, lipstick, and collyrium) Necklaces, filets, armlets, and finger rings were worn by both men and women but bangles, girdles, anklets, and ear-rings were worn by women only.
• Beads were made from gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli, etc. - naturalistic animal models as pin-heads and beads.

10. Religious Practices

• Seal: Male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto- siva), three-horned heads, and is represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, surrounded by an Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros, and Buffalo, and two deer at his feet.
• Harrapan was a predominantly secular civilization. Prevalence of the Phallus (Lingam) and Yoni, two deer.
• The chief female deity was the mother Goddess. They worshiped both male and female deities.
• The people of the Indus region also worshiped trees (pipal), fire, and animals (unicorns, humped bulls, etc).
• Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces. They used amulets against them.
• Burials: At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife.
• Jewelry has been found in the burials of both men and women.

11. Seals and Sealings

• Most of the seals are square-shaped (2x2 square inches) and made mostly from Steatite.
• Seals had an animal (except cow and horse) or human figure on one side and an inscription on the opposite side or inscriptions on both sides.
• Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes, as an amulet, as a form of identification, and for educational purposes as well.
• Seals with symbols similar to the Swastika design have also been found. The round Persian Gulf seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
• Interestingly, local Dilmun weights followed the Harappan standard. 

Image Source: Web

12. Art

• Bronze Casting: Practiced on a wide scale using the lost wax or Cire Perdue technique. They mainly consist of human and animal figures. Example: Dancing Girl. She stands in a Tribhanga dancing posture.
• Stone Statues: Bearded man: found in Mohenjo- daro and made of Steatite, interpreted as a priest.
• Red sandstone: a figure of a male torso is found in Harappa and made of Red sandstone.
• Terracotta Figures: Found less in number and crude in shape and form. Examples: Mother Goddess, the mask of a horned deity, toys, etc.

13. The Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated between:

• Aryan Invasion: One theory claims that Indo-European Tribe i.e., Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC.
• Natural Factors: On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the
  decline of the IVC.
• The natural factors could be geological and climatic.
• It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which
  causes earthquakes. Which also changed the course of rivers or dried them up.
• Another natural reason might be a change in patterns of rainfall or it could have been due to a combination of these natural and anthropogenic causes.

For Prelims: Indus Valley Civilisation, Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE, Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE, Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi. For Mains: Discuss the phases of the Indus Valley Civilisation and explain the Political and Social life during the Indus Valley civilization. (250 Words).

Previous year Questions

1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011) 1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene. 2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C

Source: World History Encyclopedia

 

 

LOGISTICS SUPPORT AGREEMENT (LSA)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The India-Russia bilateral Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), termed the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS), which had been dragging on for several years, was operationalised in January this year. There was a flutter on social media recently with claims that it allows the stationing of 3,000 Russian troops on Indian soil or vice versa, painting it as a military alliance. However, it is like any LSA, the likes of which India has signed with other countries.

 

2. What are Logistics Support Agreements?

 

 

• Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) are basic defence cooperation arrangements between countries that facilitate the mutual use of military facilities such as bases and ports for refuelling, repairs, replenishment, and other logistical requirements.
• These agreements are primarily administrative in nature and specify the circumstances under which such support may be extended, including joint military exercises, training activities, naval port visits, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations.
• With growing military-to-military engagement and strategic partnerships, LSAs help streamline procedures and minimise bureaucratic hurdles.
• For example, India and the United States signed the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, which was India’s first logistics support pact of this kind.
• The agreement establishes a framework for reciprocal access to logistics, supplies, and services during activities such as joint exercises, training programmes, and humanitarian or disaster relief missions.
• Clarifying the scope of the agreement, then Minister of State for Defence Subhash Bhamre informed Parliament in February 2017 that LEMOA does not permit the establishment of military bases or any permanent basing arrangements.
• Some exaggerated interpretations suggest that logistics agreements allow countries to station troops on each other’s territory.
• Applying this logic, it is sometimes argued that if India and Russia could deploy forces on each other’s soil, India and the United States could do the same under LEMOA. However, such claims are incorrect.
• As clarified by the Defence Ministry, logistics support agreements merely facilitate logistical cooperation and do not authorise the permanent deployment or stationing of troops, a principle that applies to all LSA

 

 

3. What is the Agreement with Russia?

 

 

• Similar to other logistics support arrangements, the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Support (RELOS) agreement lays down the framework for providing assistance to military units, facilitating port visits by naval vessels, enabling the use of airspace and airfield infrastructure by military aircraft, and organising logistical and technical support for warships, aircraft, and other military equipment of both countries.
• The agreement was concluded in Moscow on February 18, 2025, and was formally ratified after Russian President Vladimir Putin approved the corresponding federal law on December 15, 2025.
• According to the Kremlin, the pact establishes procedures governing the deployment of military contingents, naval port calls, and the use of aviation infrastructure and airspace by the armed forces of India and Russia.
• In broad terms, RELOS encompasses cooperation during joint exercises, training programmes, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations, repair and maintenance facilities, medical assistance, supply of food and technical materials, and reciprocal access to military installations, including ports and airbases, to support personnel operating ships and aircraft.
• The agreement specifies an upper ceiling of 3,000 personnel, which serves as a broad limit considering the size of military contingents and the number of ships or aircraft involved in mutually agreed engagements.
• It remains in force for five years and allows for modifications in the future to accommodate evolving requirements. The duration for the deployment of personnel and equipment would depend on the nature and schedule of visits agreed upon by both countries.
• In practice, India’s defence engagements with several countries are much more extensive. For example, Indian armed forces regularly participate in exercises with the United States and other partners.
• Officials have clarified that RELOS does not provide for the permanent deployment of troops or military assets.
• Its provisions are intended to be implemented only during agreed activities such as joint exercises, port visits, or other mutually approved engagements. No arrangement for permanent or long-term stationing forms part of the agreement.
• A notable feature of RELOS is that it grants India access to Russian military facilities in the Arctic region.
• This assumes greater significance as both countries seek to deepen cooperation in the Arctic, particularly in view of emerging navigation routes made increasingly accessible by climate change and global warming

 

 

4. Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)

 

 

• The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) is a bilateral logistics support arrangement signed between India and the United States in 2016.
• It establishes a framework that enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s military facilities for refuelling, replenishment, repairs, and other logistical requirements on a reciprocal basis.
• The agreement is intended to facilitate cooperation during joint military exercises, training activities, port visits, and humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations.
• LEMOA simplifies administrative procedures and enhances interoperability between the two militaries by providing access to logistics supplies and services when required.
• However, the agreement does not permit the establishment of military bases or permanent basing arrangements on each other’s territory.
• This clarification was provided by the Government of India, which emphasized that the pact is purely logistical in nature and does not involve the stationing of troops or military assets.
• As one of the key foundational defence agreements between India and the United States, LEMOA has strengthened strategic cooperation and improved the ability of both countries to undertake coordinated operations and respond effectively to regional and humanitarian contingencies

 

5. Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) Signed by India with Various Countries

 

 

India has entered into several Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) with strategic partners such as the United States, France, Australia, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. These arrangements facilitate reciprocal access to military facilities and enhance defence cooperation, interoperability, and maritime security.

• India–United States

 

As part of efforts to deepen defence relations, India and the United States have concluded three key foundational agreements:

• Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), signed in 2016, enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s logistics infrastructure for refuelling, replenishment, maintenance, and other support services. The agreement significantly expands the operational reach of the Indian Navy. For instance, access to American facilities such as Guam enhances India's ability to sustain operations across distant waters.
• Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) was concluded in 2018. It facilitates the use of secure and encrypted communication systems, thereby enabling the effective deployment of advanced military platforms, including the P-8I maritime surveillance aircraft operated by the Indian Navy.
• Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), signed in November 2020, provides India with access to U.S. geospatial intelligence and satellite data. This improves the precision and targeting capability of long-range weapons and strengthens situational awareness.

• India–France

• The logistics agreement between India and France seeks to enhance strategic cooperation and contribute to peace and stability in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It also enables closer collaboration between the two navies, including the exchange of maritime intelligence and improved operational coordination.

 

• India–Australia

 

• India and Australia signed the Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA) on June 4, 2020. Notably, it was the first bilateral agreement concluded through a virtual summit. The pact reflects the shared commitment of both countries to strengthening maritime cooperation and maintaining a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.

 

• India–Japan

 

• In September 2020, India and Japan signed the Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA). The agreement facilitates reciprocal logistical support between the armed forces of the two nations and promotes closer defence cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.

 

• India–Singapore

 

• India and Singapore concluded a logistics support agreement on June 1, 2020. The arrangement covers a broad spectrum of military assets, including warships, submarines, aircraft, and shipborne helicopters, thereby enhancing naval cooperation between the two countries.

 

• India–South Korea

• India signed a Mutual Logistics Support Agreement with South Korea in September 2019. The agreement has expanded the operational footprint of the Indian Navy, extending its access and presence towards the northern reaches of the South China Sea and strengthening maritime engagement in East Asia.

 

 

 

7.  Way Forward

 

 

Overall, these logistics agreements have enhanced India's military interoperability with partner countries, expanded the operational reach of its armed forces, and reinforced its strategic presence across the Indo-Pacific region.

Although the partner countries differ, the underlying framework and objectives of these arrangements remain largely identical. They are intended to facilitate joint exercises, training activities, port visits, and other forms of military cooperation by simplifying access to logistical resources and support services.

In addition, India has a logistics support arrangement with Oman, which operates within the broader framework of the bilateral defence cooperation agreement between the two countries. Together, these agreements have enhanced the operational reach of the Indian armed forces and strengthened India's strategic partnerships across different regions.

 

 

For Prelims: Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA),  Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), India and Russia   For Mains: GS II - International relations

 

 

Source: The Hindu