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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 27 JULY 2026

KEN-BETWA RIVER LINKING PROJECT

 

1. Context

Madhya Pradesh police personnel went to the banks of the Barana river stream in Kupi village of Chhatarpur district on July 19 and cleared a protest site where hundreds of villagers, mostly tribal people, had been demonstrating for two weeks against the Union government’s ₹44,000 crore Ken-Betwa Link Project, India’s first river-linking project, and two irrigation projects of the State government

2. About Ken-Betwa Link Project

  • It is the first project under the National Perspective Plan for the interlinking of rivers.
  • It envisages transferring water from the Ken river to the Betwa river, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
  • The Ken-Betwa Link Canal will be 221 km long, including a 2 km long tunnel.
  • The project has two phases with mainly four components.
  • Phase-I will involve one of the components Daudhan Dam complex and is subsidiary units such as Low-Level Tunnel, High-Level Tunnel, Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and powerhouses.
  • Phase II will involve three components Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex Project, and Kotha Barrage.
According to the Jal Shakti Ministry, the project is expected to provide annual irrigation of 10.62 lakh hectares, supply drinking water to about 62 lakh people, and generate 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.
 
  • As per an official statement issued after the Cabinet approval on Wednesday, the total cost of the Ken-Betwa link project has been assessed at Rs.44,605 crores at 2020-21 price levels.
  • The Union Cabinet has approved central support of Rs.39,317 crores for the project, covering a grant of Rs.36,290 crores and a loan of Rs.3,027 crores.
  • The statement further said that the project is proposed to be implemented in 8 years with “state-of-the-art technology.

3. Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV)

  • A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for the project is called Ken-Betwa Link Project Authority (KBLPA) will be set up to implement the project.
  • The Centre has set in motion the process of creating the National Interlinking of Rivers Authority (NIRA) is an independent autonomous body for planning, investigation, financing, and implementation of the interlinking of river (ILR) projects in the country.
  • The NIRA will have the power to set up SPV for individual link projects.
 

Ken-Betwa project agreement 

On March 22, 2021, a memorandum of agreement was signed between the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the governments of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh to implement the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP).

4. Conceptualiztion of the project

  • The idea of linking Ken with Betwa got a major push in August 2005, when a tripartite memorandum of understanding for the preparation of a detailed project report (DPR) was signed between the Centre and the two states.
  • In 2008, the Centre declared KBLP a National Project. Later, it was included as part of the Prime Minister’s package for the development of the drought-prone Bundelkhand region.
  • In April 2009, it was decided that the DPR will be prepared in two phases.
  • In 2018, a comprehensive DPR including phase-I, II, and additional areas proposed by Madhya Pradesh was also prepared.
  • It was sent to Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and the Central Water Commission in October 2018.
  • The memorandum of agreement was signed to implement the project.

5. Benefits from Project

  • The project lies in Bundelkhand, a drought-prone region, which spreads across 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
According to the Jal Shakti Ministry, the project will be of immense benefit to the water-starved region, especially the districts of Panna, Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Sagar, Damoh, Datia, Vidisha, Shivpuri and Raisen of Madhya Pradesh, and Banda, Mahoba, Jhansi and Lalitpur of Uttar Pradesh.
  • It will pave the way for more interlinking of river projects to ensure that scarcity of water does not become an inhibitor for development in the country.
 
Image source: The Indian Express
 
6. The Panna Tiger Reserve
  • According to the National Water Development Agency under the Jal Shakti Ministry, the Daudhan dam, to be built on the Ken river, will be 77 meters high and its gross capacity will be 2,853 million cubic meters.
  • According to the NWDA, the reservoir of Daudhan dam will involve “a submergence of 9000 ha area, out of which 5803 ha comes under Panna Tiger Reserve.
  • The latter includes 4141 ha of forest area which is about 7.6% of the total Panna Tiger Reserve area”.
  • To mitigate adverse impacts on Panna Tiger Reserve, as decided by NTCA,
  • Landscape Management Plan to decide mitigation strategy concerning KenBetwa Link entrusted to Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, and is in its final stage.
  • In addition to above three wildlife sanctuaries, viz Nauradehi, Rani Durgawati of MP and Ranipur WLF of UP are planned to be integrated with PTR for the proper conservation of Wild Life under Tiger Reserve.

7. The concept of river linking in India

  • In the past, several river-linking projects have been taken up.
  • For instance, the Periyar Project, under which the transfer of water from the Periyar basin to the Vaigai basin was envisaged, was commissioned in 1895.
  • Other projects such as Parambikulam Aliyar, Kurnool Cudappah Canal, Telugu Ganga Project, and Ravi-Beas-Sutlej too were undertaken.
  • In the 1970s, the idea of transferring surplus water from a river to a water-deficit area was mooted by the then Union Irrigation Minister Dr. K L Rao.
  • Himself an engineer, he suggested the construction of a National Water Grid for transferring water from water-rich areas to water-deficit areas.
  • Later, Captain Dinshaw J Dastoor proposed a Garland Canal to redistribute the water from one area to another.
  • However, the government did not pursue these two ideas further.
  • It was not until August 1980 that the Ministry of Irrigation prepared a National Perspective Plan for water resources development envisaging interbasin water transfer.
  • The NPP comprised two components: Himalayan Rivers Development; and Peninsular Rivers Development. Based on the NPP, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) identified 30 river links 16 under the Peninsular component and 14 under the Himalayan Component.
  • Later, the river-linking idea was revived during the Atal Bihari Vajpayee regime.
  • The Ken-Betwa Link Project is one of the 16 projects under the peninsular component.

8. Clearances for a river-linking project

Various types of clearances are required, such as techno-economic clearance (given by the Central Water Commission);
  1. Forest clearance, and environmental clearance (Ministry of Environment & Forests);
  2. Resettlement and rehabilitation plan of tribal population (Ministry of Tribal Affairs) and
  3. Wildlife clearance (Central Empowered Committee).

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: river-linking projects, Ken-Betwa Link Project, Himalayan Rivers Development; and Peninsular Rivers Development, National Water Development Agency, Jal Shakti Ministry, The Panna Tiger Reserve, NitiAayog. Yamuna river, Ken-Betwa Link Project Authority (KBLPA), 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the significance and hurdles of the Ken-Betwa River Link Project (250 Words)
2. What is River linking and discuss the significance of the River linking system in India (250 Words)
 
Source: PIB and The Indian Express 
 
 

TARIFFS

 
 
1. Context
 
The United States has placed India in a lower 10 per cent tariff category, after the country was initially considered for a steeper 12.5 per cent rate. The lower rate followed what officials called constructive talks with Washington on labour practices

2. What is a Tariff?

  • Most countries are limited by their natural resources and ability to produce certain goods and services.
  • They trade with other countries to get what their population needs and demands. However, trade isn't always conducted in an amenable manner between trading partners.
  • Policies, geopolitics, competition, and many other factors can make trading partners unhappy. One of the ways governments deal with trading partners they disagree with is through tariffs.
  • A tariff is a tax imposed by one country on the goods and services imported from another country to influence it, raise revenues, or protect competitive advantages.

3. Key Take Aways

  • Governments impose tariffs to raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.
  • Tariffs often result in unwanted side effects, such as higher consumer prices.
  • Tariffs have a long and contentious history, and the debate over whether they represent good or bad policy still rages.

4. History of Tariffs

4.1 Pre Modern Europe

  • In pre-modern Europe, a nation's wealth was believed to consist of fixed, tangible assets,  such as gold, silver, land, and other physical resources.
  • Trade was seen as a Zero-sum game that resulted in either a clear net loss or a clear net gain of wealth.
  • If a country imported more than it exported, a resource, mainly gold, would flow abroad, thereby draining its wealth. Cross-border trade was viewed with suspicion, and countries preferred to acquire colonies with which they could establish exclusive trading relationships rather than trading with each other.
  • This system, known as mercantilism, relied heavily on tariffs and even outright bans on trade. The colonizing country, which saw itself as competing with other colonizers, would import raw materials from its colonies, which were generally barred from selling their raw materials elsewhere.
  • The colonizing country would convert the materials into manufactured wares, which it would sell back to the colonies. High tariffs and other barriers were implemented to ensure that colonies only purchased manufactured goods from their home countries. 

4.2 Late 19th and early 20th Centuries

  • Relatively free trade enjoyed a heyday in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the idea took hold that international commerce had made large-scale wars between nations so expensive and counterproductive that they were obsolete.
  • World War I proved that idea wrong, and nationalist approaches to trade, including high tariffs, dominated until the end of World War II.
  • From that point on, free trade enjoyed a 50-year resurgence, culminating in the creation in 1995 of the World Trade Organisation  (WTO), which acts as an international forum for settling disputes and laying down ground rules.
  • Free trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) now known as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) and the European Union (EU), also proliferated.

4.3 In the 21st Century

  • Skepticism of this model sometimes labeled neoliberalism by critics who tie it to 19th-century liberal arguments in favor of free trade grew, however, and Britain in 2016 voted to leave the European Union.
  • That same year Donald Trump won the U.S. presidential election on a platform that included a call for tariffs on Chinese and Mexican imports, which he implemented when he took office.
  • Critics of tariff-free multilateral trade deals, who come from both ends of the political spectrum, argue that they erode national sovereignty and encourage a race to the bottom regarding wages, worker protections, and product quality and standards.
  • Meanwhile, the defenders of such deals counter that tariffs lead to trade wars, hurt consumers, and hamper innovation.

5. Understanding Tariffs

  • Tariffs are used to restrict imports. Simply put, they increase the price of goods and services purchased from another country, making them less attractive to domestic consumers.
  • A key point to understand is that a tariff affects the exporting country because consumers in the country that imposed the tariff might shy away from imports due to the price increase. However, if the consumer still chooses the imported product, then the tariff has essentially raised the cost to the consumer in another country.

There are two types of tariffs:

  • A specific tariff is levied as a fixed fee based on the type of item, such as a $500 tariff on a car.
  • An ad-valorem tariff is levied based on the item's value, such as 5% of an import's value.

6. Why Government Imposes Tariffs?

Governments may impose tariffs for several reasons
6.1 Raise Revenues

Tariffs can be used to raise revenues for governments. This kind of tariff is called a revenue tariff and is not designed to restrict imports. For instance, in 2018 and 2019, President Donald Trump and his administration imposed tariffs on many items to rebalance the trade deficit. In the fiscal year 2019, customs duties received were $18 billion. In FY 2020, duties received were $21 billion.

6.2 Protect Domestic Industries

Governments can use tariffs to benefit particular industries, often doing so to protect companies and jobs. For example, in May 2022, President Joe Biden proposed a 25% ad valorem tariff on steel articles from all countries except Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom (the U.K. has a quota of an aggregate of 500,000 metric tons it can trade with the U.S.). This proclamation reopens the trade of specific items with the U.K. while taking measures to protect domestic U.S. steel manufacturing and production jobs.

6.3 Protect Domestic Consumers

By making foreign-produced goods more expensive, tariffs can make domestically-produced alternatives seem more attractive. Some products made in countries with fewer regulations can harm consumers, such as a product coated in lead-based paint. Tariffs can make these products so expensive that consumers won't buy them.

6.4 Protect National Interests

Tariffs can also be used as an extension of foreign policy as their imposition on a trading partner's main exports may be used to exert economic leverage. For example, when Russia invaded Ukraine, much of the world protested by boycotting Russian goods or imposing sanctions. In April 2022, President Joe Biden suspended normal trade with Russia. In June, he raised the tariff on Russian imports not prohibited by the April suspension to 35%.

7. Advantages of Tariffs

  • Produce revenues: As discussed, tariffs provide a government a chance to bring in more money. This can relieve some of the tax burdens felt by a county's citizens and help the government to reduce deficits.
  • Open negotiations: Tariffs can be used by countries to open negotiations for trade or other issues. Each side can use tariffs to help them create economic policies and talk with trade partners.
  • Support a nation's goals: One of the most popular uses for tariffs is to use them to ensure domestic products receive preference within a country to support businesses and the economy.
  • Make a market predictable: Tariffs can help stabilize a market and make prices predictable.

8. Disadvantages of Tariffs

  • Create issues between governments: Many nations use tariffs to punish or discourage actions they disapprove of. Unfortunately, doing this can create tensions between two countries and lead to more problems.
  • Initiate trade wars: A typical response for a country with tariffs imposed on it is to respond similarly, creating a trade war in which neither country benefits from the other.

For Prelims: Tariffs, Zero-sum game, Cross-border trade, World Trade Organisation  (WTO), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), and the European Union (EU).

For Mains: 1. What is a Tariff and explain why government imposes tariffs. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with Tariffs. (250 Words).
Source: Investopedia
 
 
 
 

INDIA'S ENERGY SECURITY

 
 
 
1. Context
 

Discounts on Russian oil for Indian refiners have vanished again amid the resurgence of conflict in West Asia and the drastic reduction in energy flows through the critical trade artery of the Strait of Hormuz, according to a senior official with government-owned refiner Bharat Petroleum Corporation (BPCL). 

 

2. Global energy supply uncertainty 

 

  • Global energy supply networks continue to experience instability, while fuel prices remain highly sensitive to international geopolitical and economic disturbances. For countries such as India, enhancing domestic energy security has therefore become increasingly critical.
  • At the same time, as India explores large-scale and sustainable energy alternatives, a significant but underutilised resource already exists in the form of waste generated across the country.
  • Massive quantities of agricultural residues, food waste, sewage sludge, and organic municipal waste are produced annually, yet a substantial portion is either inefficiently managed or left unused.
  • This situation highlights the close connection between two pressing national concerns: energy security and waste management. Materials commonly viewed only as waste-disposal challenges can, with suitable technologies and infrastructure, be transformed into valuable sources of energy.
  • The central issue is not the availability of raw resources, but whether India can establish efficient and scalable systems capable of converting waste into dependable and commercially sustainable energy solutions.

 

3. Waste and Energy

 

  • India generates close to 750 million tonnes of agricultural biomass annually, out of which nearly 230 million metric tonnes is considered surplus biomass.
  • If this excess biomass is effectively collected and processed, it could substantially reduce the country’s reliance on fossil fuels, with some projections indicating the potential to substitute almost one-third of fuel imports. However, transforming biomass into usable energy remains a challenging process.
  • Unlike traditional fossil fuels, biomass lacks uniformity in its characteristics. Variations in moisture content, density, and ash composition differ widely among feedstocks, influencing combustion performance, transportation costs, emission levels, and operational efficiency in industries.
  • Since most energy systems depend on consistent and reliable fuel quality, untreated biomass often falls short of these requirements.
  • Consequently, increasing attention is being directed toward technologies capable of converting waste into cleaner, more efficient, and easier-to-handle forms of energy. In this context, processes such as gasification and anaerobic digestion are gaining growing significance.
  • These technologies effectively serve as a link between raw waste materials and practical energy infrastructure.
  • Rather than viewing waste merely as a low-value residue, they enable its transformation into commercially useful fuels and energy carriers that can be integrated into existing industrial and energy networks
 
4. What is Syngas?
 
 
  • Gasification is especially suitable for processing dry biomass materials such as crop residues, husk, woody biomass, and other solid organic waste.
  • Within a gasifier, the feedstock undergoes multiple stages including drying, pyrolysis, partial oxidation, and reduction.
  • During this process, heat breaks down the biomass into gases, biochar, and tar compounds.
  • A controlled and limited supply of oxygen is introduced — insufficient for full combustion but adequate to maintain chemical reactions involving carbon, steam, and carbon dioxide at temperatures ranging between 800°C and 1,000°C.
  • The resulting product is syngas, a fuel mixture primarily composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, along with smaller quantities of methane and other gases.
  • Syngas is considered highly valuable because of its adaptability. It can be directly utilised for producing heat and electricity or further refined into renewable fuels such as methane, methanol, ethanol, and even hydrogen depending on industrial requirements.
  • This versatility positions gasification as one of the most promising technologies in advanced bioenergy systems and explains its growing importance in the development of future clean-fuel ecosystems.
  • In addition to energy production, gasification also generates biochar, a carbon-rich byproduct that can enhance soil fertility while contributing to carbon sequestration. The process further creates potential opportunities within emerging carbon credit markets.
  • Therefore, the benefits of gasification extend beyond energy generation alone, supporting wider environmental sustainability and agricultural improvement objectives
 
5. Anaerobic digestion
 
 
  • While gasification is best suited for dry forms of biomass, wet organic waste requires an alternative processing method. In this context, anaerobic digestion emerges as an important solution, particularly for handling sewage, food waste, animal manure, and various industrial organic waste streams.
  • Under this process, microorganisms decompose organic matter in an oxygen-free environment, resulting in the production of biogas that primarily contains methane and carbon dioxide. Alongside biogas, the process also generates a nutrient-rich digestate, which can serve as a soil conditioner when properly managed.
  • This makes anaerobic digestion highly applicable in urban waste-management systems, sewage treatment facilities, dairy farms, food-processing industries, industrial campuses, and large institutional kitchens where wet waste is generated regularly. On a smaller scale, the technology can also benefit rural and semi-urban areas.
  • However, unlike thermal conversion technologies, anaerobic digestion relies on a stable and continuous biological process.
  • Therefore, maintaining operational efficiency and ensuring uninterrupted energy output require a consistent and adequate supply of feedstock over the long term
 
6. Decentralised energy
 
 
  • For India, the greater potential may lie not in selecting one waste-to-energy technology over another, but in combining them strategically.
  • Gasification is most effective for processing dry waste, whereas anaerobic digestion performs better with wet organic waste.
  • When integrated thoughtfully, these technologies offer a more comprehensive solution suited to the varied nature of India’s waste streams.
  • Ensuring that the appropriate type of waste is matched with the correct technology and intended energy outcome is equally important. Using wet waste in gasifiers or feeding dry biomass into digesters can lower efficiency and create additional operational difficulties.
  • Such a combined approach also supports the development of decentralised energy systems.
  • India’s energy transition cannot depend solely on large centralised facilities; it also requires smaller distributed systems capable of serving rural industries, agro-processing hubs, MSMEs, and regions with high waste generation where transporting biomass across long distances becomes economically unviable.
  • Localised systems can transform locally available waste into usable energy, thereby reducing fuel expenses while simultaneously improving waste management and energy accessibility.
  • For this ecosystem to expand successfully, strong policy backing will be essential.
  • Measures such as waste segregation at the source, investment in decentralised infrastructure, development of robust carbon markets, and long-term regulatory certainty will significantly shape the speed of adoption.
  • Without effective segregation practices, both gasification and anaerobic digestion will struggle to operate at their optimal capacity. Likewise, uncertainty in policy frameworks often discourages investors and operators from making large-scale financial commitments
 
 
7. Way Forward
 
 
Programs such as the Government of India’s SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) initiative have already shown the potential of converting biomass into biogas and further refining it into compressed biogas (CBG), a renewable substitute for natural gas that is increasingly being adopted across multiple sectors. At the same time, syngas is becoming an important intermediary for the production of fuels such as ethanol, methanol, and hydrogen.
 
 
For Prelims: anaerobic digestion, microorganisms , Syngas , biochar, Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT)
 
For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (2016)
  1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.
  2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (a)

 

  1. Statement 1 is correct. The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015 in Paris.

  2. Statement 2 is incorrect. Initially, the ISA was intended for solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. However, in subsequent years, the membership was expanded to include all UN member countries

 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

UNESCO'S WORLD HERITAGE SITES

 
 
1. Context
 
Sarnath, the ancient site where Lord Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment, has been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List, becoming India’s 45th and Uttar Pradesh’s fourth World Heritage Site.
 
2. What is a UNESCO World Heritage Site? 
 

UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, plays a crucial role in the protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage worldwide. Its key mission is to recognize and safeguard sites of exceptional value to humanity. This effort is guided by the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, an international agreement adopted in 1972.

A World Heritage Site is designated based on its "outstanding universal value", meaning it holds exceptional cultural or natural significance that transcends national borders and is of collective importance for present and future generations. These sites are classified into three categories: cultural heritage, natural heritage, and mixed heritage (both cultural and natural).

  • Cultural heritage sites are recognized for their historical, artistic, or scientific value, including monuments, groups of buildings, and locations shaped by human interaction with nature. Examples include the Taj Mahal, the Statue of Liberty, and the Sydney Opera House.
  • Natural heritage sites are acknowledged for their scientific, conservation, or aesthetic significance, such as the Sundarbans National Park and Victoria Falls.

Currently, the World Heritage List includes 1,223 sites, categorized into 952 cultural, 231 natural, and 40 mixed properties across 168 nations. As of October 2024, 196 countries have ratified the World Heritage Convention.

The World Heritage concept is universal, as UNESCO states that these sites "belong to all people, regardless of the country in which they are located."

 

3. Criterion for Selecting World heritage Sites

 

The UNESCO World Heritage Committee convenes at least once annually, typically in June or July, to review and decide on the inclusion, removal, or modification of sites on the World Heritage List. The Committee consists of 21 members, selected from the 196 States Parties that have ratified the 1972 World Heritage Convention.

Selection Criteria

To be designated as a World Heritage Site, a location must demonstrate outstanding universal value and satisfy at least one of ten specific selection criteria. These criteria, outlined in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, are periodically updated to reflect the evolving understanding of heritage conservation.

Until 2004, sites were chosen based on six cultural and four natural criteria. However, following a revision of the Operational Guidelines, a unified set of ten criteria is now used:

  • Masterpiece of Human Creativity: Represents an extraordinary achievement of human creative genius.
  • Cultural Exchange: Showcases a significant interchange of human values across time or within a specific cultural area through architecture, technology, arts, urban planning, or landscape design.
  • Cultural Testimony: Bears unique or exceptional evidence of a cultural tradition or a civilization, whether living or extinct.
  • Historical Significance: Serves as an outstanding example of architectural, technological, or landscape development that illustrates a key stage in human history.
  • Traditional Settlement and Land Use: Exemplifies a traditional human settlement, land use, or sea use, especially one that is vulnerable to irreversible change.
  • Association with Events or Traditions: Holds a direct connection to significant events, traditions, beliefs, or artistic and literary works of outstanding universal importance.
  • Natural Beauty and Aesthetic Value: Features extraordinary natural phenomena or landscapes of exceptional beauty.
  • Earth’s History and Geological Significance: Represents major stages of Earth's history, including records of life, ongoing geological processes, and distinctive landform development.
  • Ecological and Biological Evolution: Demonstrates significant ecological and biological processes that contribute to the evolution of ecosystems and biodiversity.
  • Conservation of Biodiversity: Contains critical natural habitats essential for the in-situ conservation of biodiversity, including threatened species of exceptional scientific or conservation value

 

4. India's World heritage sites

 

India became a signatory to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), commonly known as the World Heritage Convention, in 1977. Currently, 43 sites from India have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, comprising 35 cultural sites, 7 natural sites, and 1 mixed site. Additionally, 62 sites are included in UNESCO’s Tentative List.

UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Sites in India

  • Taj Mahal (1983)
  • Agra Fort (1983)
  • Ajanta Caves (1983)
  • Ellora Caves (1983)
  • Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984)
  • Sun Temple, Konârak (1984)
  • Churches and Convents of Goa (1986)
  • Fatehpur Sikri (1986)
  • Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986)
  • Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986)
  • Elephanta Caves (1987)
  • Great Living Chola Temples (1987, 2004)
  • Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987)
  • Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989)
  • Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi (1993)
  • Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi (1993)
  • Mountain Railways of India (1999, 2005, 2008)
  • Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)
  • Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003)
  • Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (2004)
  • Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004)
  • Red Fort Complex (2007)
  • The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010)
  • Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013)
  • Rani-ki-Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell), Gujarat (2014)
  • Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar (2016)
  • The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier – A Contribution to the Modern Movement (2016)
  • Historic City of Ahmedabad (2017)
  • Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (2018)
  • Jaipur City, Rajasthan (2019)
  • Dholavira: A Harappan City (2021)
  • Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Telangana (2021)
  • Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (2023)
  • Santiniketan (2023)
  • Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty (2024)
  • Sarnath
 

As per the operational guidelines of the World Heritage Convention, a Tentative List serves as an inventory of sites that a country deems worthy of World Heritage status. Once a property is added to UNESCO’s Tentative List, the respective nation must prepare a nomination dossier, which is then reviewed by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.

In India, the Indian National Commission for Co-operation with UNESCO (INCCU) and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) play a crucial role in this process.

For the first time, India hosted the 46th World Heritage Committee Meeting in July 2024 at Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi. The event was organized by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under the Ministry of Culture.

The logo for the event was inspired by the World Heritage Site of Hampi, and its tagline, "सह नौ यशः" (translated as "May Our Glory Grow"), was drawn from the ancient Sanskrit text, the Taittiriya Upanishad—reflecting a vision of shared prosperity and growth
 
 
5. What is the cultural significance of Sarnath?
 
 
  • Sarnath, revered as one of Buddhism’s most sacred pilgrimage destinations, has gained international recognition for its exceptional cultural and historical importance.
  • According to the state government, this recognition is expected to enhance the global visibility of Uttar Pradesh’s Buddhist Circuit, promoting both heritage conservation and international tourism.
  • The site holds immense religious significance as the place where Gautama Buddha, following his enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, delivered his first sermon.
  • This event, known as Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the Wheel of Dharma), marked the formal beginning of the spread of Buddhist teachings.
  • Ancient Buddhist texts also refer to Sarnath by the name Rishipattana (Isipatana), highlighting its long-standing spiritual importance.
  • Today, Buddhism is one of the world's major religions, inspiring millions through its emphasis on compassion, ethical conduct, and the pursuit of wisdom.
  • The religion originated in the Indian subcontinent during the 6th century BCE, emerging alongside several other Śramaṇa traditions.
  • These reformist movements developed in response to increasing dissatisfaction with the ritual-oriented practices and rigid social hierarchy associated with the prevailing Brahmanical order, offering alternative philosophical and spiritual paths centered on personal enlightenment and moral discipline
 
6. What is the Dharmachakrapravartana?
 
 
 
  • Dharmachakrapravartana is a Sanskrit term that literally means "Turning the Wheel of Dharma" or "Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Law." It refers to one of the most significant events in the history of Buddhism—the moment when Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment.
  • This sermon marked the beginning of the public dissemination of the Buddha's teachings and the formal establishment of Buddhism as a religious and philosophical tradition
  • After achieving enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya, the Buddha traveled to Sarnath (ancient Isipatana or Rishipattana), near present-day Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.
  • There, he met the five ascetics who had previously accompanied him during his years of severe austerities. These five disciples became the first recipients of his teachings.
  • In his discourse, known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in the Pali Canon, the Buddha explained the fundamental principles that would become the foundation of Buddhism.
  • He introduced the Four Noble Truths, which explain the nature of human suffering, its causes, the possibility of overcoming it, and the path leading to its cessation. He also expounded the Noble Eightfold Path, a practical guide for achieving ethical living, mental discipline, and spiritual wisdom, ultimately leading to liberation from suffering (Nirvana).
  • The expression "Turning the Wheel of Dharma" is deeply symbolic. In Indian tradition, the wheel (Chakra) represents movement, continuity, and righteous authority. By delivering his first sermon, the Buddha metaphorically set the "Wheel of Dharma" in motion, signifying the beginning of the spread of his teachings to humanity.
  • This event transformed Buddhism from the personal realization of an enlightened individual into a universal doctrine capable of guiding countless people toward spiritual liberation.
  • The concept of the Dharma Chakra later became one of the most enduring symbols of Buddhism. It represents the Buddha's teachings and the continuous journey toward wisdom and enlightenment.
  • The wheel typically has 24 spokes, symbolizing virtues and ethical principles, and this same wheel was adopted as the Ashoka Chakra in the center of the Indian National Flag, reflecting India's rich Buddhist heritage and the universal values of righteousness, justice, and moral progress.
  • Dharmachakrapravartana also marked the beginning of the Buddhist Sangha, the community of monks and later nuns dedicated to preserving and propagating the Buddha's teachings.
  • The five ascetics who listened to the first sermon became the earliest members of this monastic community, which played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism across India and, eventually, to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, and other parts of the world.
 
7. Way Forward
 
Cultural heritage entails an Outstanding Universal Value from the point of view of history, art or science, and includes monuments, groups of buildings, and sites which are the combined work of nature and human agency. Examples include the Taj Mahal, the Statue of Liberty, and the Sydney Opera House
 
For Prelims: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), World Heritage Site
 
For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.Recently, which one of the following was included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list? ( UPSC CSE 2009)

(a) Dilwara Temple

(b) Kalka-Shimla Railway

(c) Bhiterkanika Mangrove Area

(d) Visakhapatnam to Araku valley railway line

Answer (b)
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC AND TRADE AGREEMENT (CETA)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The India-U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) came into effect on July 15, a year after it was signed. At the same time, the India-U.K. Double Contribution Convention (DCC) also comes into effect. The trade deal has been hailed by both sides, with Commerce Secretary Rajesh Agrawal even calling it the “gold standard” of India’s free trade agreements.
 
 
2. What Trade Benefits Does India Receive Under CETA?
 
 
  • According to India's Chief Trade Negotiator, Rajesh Agrawal, the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) is notable not only for its extensive coverage but also for the substantial market access it provides.
  • The agreement goes beyond addressing a broad range of tariff and non-tariff measures by offering meaningful concessions across several key sectors, making it one of India's most comprehensive trade agreements.
  • Under the agreement, the United Kingdom has committed to eliminating customs duties on 96.8% of its tariff lines immediately after the agreement comes into effect. These tariff reductions account for approximately 97.7% of India's exports by value.
  • In addition, tariffs on another 2% of tariff lines, representing nearly 1.8% of trade value, will be reduced through tariff-rate quotas.
  • As a result, the agreement ultimately provides preferential market access covering 98.8% of tariff lines and approximately 99.5% of the total value of bilateral trade.
  • The scope of CETA extends well beyond tariff liberalization. Spread across 30 chapters, the agreement includes provisions relating to digital commerce, government procurement, innovation, support for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs), labour standards, environmental sustainability, and gender-related issues.
  • It also establishes rules to address non-tariff barriers, including Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), with the objective of ensuring that such regulations facilitate legitimate public policy goals without becoming unnecessary obstacles to international trade.
  • Services trade constitutes another major component of the agreement and is particularly significant for India, where the services sector is a key contributor to economic growth and export earnings.
  • Under CETA, the United Kingdom has provided enhanced market access by allowing Indian businesses to establish a commercial presence in sectors such as information technology and computer services, consulting, and environmental services.
  • This enables Indian enterprises to expand their operations in the U.K. through branches, subsidiaries, or representative offices, thereby strengthening their participation in the British market
 
 
3. What is the Double Contribution Convention (DCC), and How Does It Benefit Indian Workers in the United Kingdom?
 
 
  • A major achievement for India under the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) is the inclusion of the Double Contribution Convention (DCC).
  • This provision is designed to prevent Indian professionals temporarily employed in the United Kingdom from making mandatory social security contributions in both countries simultaneously.
  • Under the DCC, Indian employees who continue contributing to India's social security system, along with their employers, are exempt from paying social security contributions in the U.K. for a period of up to five years.
  • The exemption was originally proposed for three years but was subsequently extended to five years during negotiations.
  • Before the introduction of the DCC, Indian workers on temporary assignments in the United Kingdom faced the burden of contributing to social security schemes in both India and the U.K.
  • Since most Indian professionals are deputed to the U.K. for periods not exceeding five years, they rarely remained in the country long enough to qualify for U.K. social security benefits. Under British regulations, workers generally need to contribute for at least 10 years before becoming eligible to receive pension and other social security benefits.
  • Consequently, many Indian employees paid into the U.K. system without ever receiving any corresponding benefits because they returned to India before meeting the eligibility criteria.
  • The DCC addresses this long-standing concern by exempting eligible Indian workers from U.K. social security payments during their temporary stay, provided they continue making the required contributions in India.
  • This exemption is expected to cover nearly 90% of Indian professionals working in the United Kingdom, enabling them to retain around 23% of their salary that would otherwise have been deducted as U.K. social security contributions
 
 
4. What Benefits Does the United Kingdom Receive Under CETA?
 
 
  • The Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) provides the United Kingdom with substantial opportunities to expand its presence in the Indian market across both goods and services.
  • While India has safeguarded certain strategically important and sensitive sectors from excessive foreign competition, the agreement nevertheless offers British businesses significantly improved access to one of the world's fastest-growing major economies.
  • Under the agreement, India has committed to eliminating customs duties immediately on products representing 30.3% of bilateral trade value.
  • Tariffs on another 47% of trade value will be phased out over a specified period, while products accounting for 12.1% of trade value will benefit from preferential tariff concessions through tariff-rate quotas.
  • Overall, the agreement provides preferential access covering 89.5% of India's tariff lines, representing approximately 89.4% of the total value of bilateral trade.
  • Among the sectors expected to benefit the most are several iconic British exports. The gradual reduction in import duties will make U.K.-made whisky more affordable for Indian consumers.
  • Similarly, tariffs on British automobiles, engineering equipment, and a range of industrial products will decline, improving their competitiveness in the Indian market and creating new export opportunities for U.K. manufacturers.
  • The agreement also strengthens market access for British service providers. India has agreed to liberalize several important service sectors, including accountancy, auditing, financial services, telecommunications, and environmental services.
  • As a result, U.K.-based firms operating in these fields will be able to provide services to Indian clients under more favourable conditions, often without the need to establish a permanent commercial presence in India.
  • In addition, India has committed to recognizing certain U.K. professional qualifications, particularly in the fields of law and accounting, thereby making it easier for qualified British professionals to engage with the Indian market and offer their expertise
 
 
5. Are There Any Unique Features of the CETA?
 
 
  • In addition to its comprehensive coverage and extensive market access commitments, the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) contains several distinctive provisions that make it different from India's earlier free trade agreements.
  • Among the most noteworthy are the provisions relating to automobile imports and government procurement, both of which represent significant policy developments.
  • One of the landmark features of the agreement is India's decision to reduce import duties on automobiles from the United Kingdom.
  • This is the first time India has agreed to provide preferential tariff treatment for imported passenger vehicles under a trade agreement.
  • As notified by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) on 10 July, the agreement permits the import of 20,000 fully built petrol and diesel passenger vehicles from the U.K. during the first year at concessional customs duty rates ranging from 30% to 50%, depending on factors such as engine capacity and vehicle category.
  • These preferential rates are substantially lower than the regular import duties, which generally range between 66% and 110%.
  • The agreement also establishes a phased quota mechanism for automobile imports. The annual import quota for eligible passenger vehicles will gradually increase to 37,000 units by the fifth year of the agreement.
  • Thereafter, the quota will progressively decline, eventually stabilizing at 15,000 vehicles annually from the fifteenth year onwards. During this period, the concessional tariff applicable to vehicles imported within the quota will also be reduced, reaching 10% by the fifth year and remaining at that level thereafter.
  • Separate quota limits and tariff schedules have also been negotiated for electric and other alternative-fuel passenger vehicles, as well as for commercial vehicles, reflecting the diversity of the automobile sector.
  • Government procurement is another area where the agreement introduces important changes. Under CETA, companies from the United Kingdom will be permitted to participate in procurement tenders floated by the Government of India.
  • However, their participation will be subject to specific conditions, and they will be treated as Class-II local suppliers in eligible Central Government tenders, ensuring that domestic firms continue to enjoy preferential treatment in public procurement.
  • At the same time, Indian businesses will benefit from improved access to the United Kingdom's government procurement market. Indian suppliers will continue to receive Class-I local supplier preference in the U.K., enabling them to compete more effectively for eligible public contracts.
  • Nevertheless, this access is limited to procurement by non-sensitive Central Government departments and public utilities, while contracts awarded by central public sector enterprises (PSUs) and state or local government bodies remain outside the scope of the agreement.
  • According to India's Ministry of Commerce, the arrangement grants Indian companies legal access to U.K. government procurement opportunities valued at approximately £90 billion (around US$122 billion).
  • In return, India has opened procurement opportunities worth nearly US$114 billion to eligible British firms, creating a mutually beneficial framework for public sector contracting
 
 
6. Way Forward
 

One notable aspect absent from the India–U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) is a dedicated investment commitment. Unlike some of India's recent trade agreements, CETA does not contain a provision requiring the United Kingdom to facilitate a specific level of investment into India over a defined period.

For instance, the Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) between India and the four member countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) includes an investment-related commitment under which the EFTA bloc has agreed to facilitate US$100 billion in investments in India over a 15-year period. Similarly, the India–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement contains a provision whereby New Zealand has committed to facilitating US$20 billion of investment in India during the same 15-year timeframe.

 

For Prelims: Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), Double Contribution Convention (DCC)
 
For Mains: GS II - International relations
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6
 
Answer: C
 

2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018)

(a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output.
(b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output.
(c) Poverty and unemployment increase.
(d) Imports grow faster than exports.

Answer: C

3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)

  1. Development of infrastructure facilities.
  2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources.
  3. Promotion of exports of services only.

Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?

(a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011)

(a) the money supply is fully controlled
(b) deficit financing takes place
(c) only exports take place
(d) neither exports nor imports take place

Answer: D

5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club.
2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT COUNCILS (DDC)

 
1. Context
 
The restructuring of Jammu and Kashmir’s political and administrative framework through the constitution of District Development Councils (DDCs) has remained the subject of legal and constitutional debate. Formed in 2021, the DDCs completed their five-year term on February 24, 2026
 
 
2. What do the 73rd and 74th Amendments provide for?
 
 
  • The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992 are regarded as landmark reforms in India's democratic framework because they provided constitutional status to local self-government institutions.
  • These amendments were enacted with the objective of decentralizing power, promoting grassroots democracy, and ensuring greater participation of people in governance.
  • While the 73rd Constitutional Amendment deals with rural local self-government through Panchayati Raj Institutions, the 74th Constitutional Amendment focuses on urban local self-government through Municipalities.
  • The 73rd Amendment came into effect on 24 April 1993, whereas the 74th Amendment became effective on 1 June 1993.
  • The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 inserted Part IX (Articles 243 to 243-O) into the Constitution and added the Eleventh Schedule, which contains 29 subjects that may be devolved to Panchayats.
  • The amendment established Panchayati Raj Institutions as the third tier of government in rural India and sought to strengthen democratic decentralization.
  • It envisages a three-tier Panchayati Raj system, consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate or block level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. However, states with a population of less than twenty lakh are not required to establish the intermediate tier.
  • An important feature of the 73rd Amendment is the recognition of the Gram Sabha as the foundation of village democracy.
  • The Gram Sabha comprises all registered voters in a village and serves as the primary forum through which people participate directly in local governance.
  • The amendment also mandates direct elections to all seats in Panchayats and provides for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population.
  • Additionally, it reserves not less than one-third of the total seats and offices of Chairpersons for women, although several states have subsequently increased this reservation to fifty percent.
  • To ensure continuity and accountability, the amendment fixes the tenure of Panchayats at five years and requires fresh elections to be held within six months if a Panchayat is dissolved prematurely.
  • It also provides for the establishment of an independent State Election Commission to supervise, direct, and conduct elections to Panchayats.
  • Furthermore, every state is required to constitute a State Finance Commission every five years to recommend the distribution of financial resources between the State Government and local bodies, thereby strengthening their financial autonomy.
  • The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 extended similar constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies by inserting Part IXA (Articles 243P to 243ZG) into the Constitution and adding the Twelfth Schedule, which lists 18 subjects related to urban governance.
  • The amendment aims to make urban local institutions more democratic, representative, and accountable while enabling them to manage the increasing challenges of urbanization effectively.
  • The amendment provides for three categories of urban local bodies depending on the size and nature of the urban area.
  • A Nagar Panchayat is established for transitional areas moving from rural to urban status, a Municipal Council is constituted for smaller urban areas, and a Municipal Corporation is created for larger urban areas.
  • Members of these bodies are elected directly by the people. Similar to the provisions under the 73rd Amendment, seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and not less than one-third of the seats for women, ensuring inclusive participation in urban governance.
  • The 74th Amendment also prescribes a five-year tenure for Municipalities and requires elections to be conducted within six months if a municipality is dissolved before completing its term.
  • It entrusts the State Election Commission with the responsibility of conducting municipal elections and requires the State Finance Commission to recommend measures for improving the financial position of urban local bodies.
  • Recognizing the need for coordinated planning, the amendment provides for the constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) to integrate rural and urban development plans at the district level.
  • It also mandates the establishment of Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) in metropolitan areas to prepare comprehensive development plans by integrating the plans prepared by various municipalities and Panchayats within the metropolitan region.

 

3. Structure of Local Governance in India

 

  • India's constitutional framework establishes a well-defined multi-level system of local governance in which citizens elect their representatives directly at different tiers. This arrangement is intended to deepen democratic participation by bringing decision-making closer to the people.
  • In urban areas, local administration is carried out through Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats, each catering to different categories of urban settlements based on their size and stage of development.
  • In rural areas, governance is organised through a three-tier Panchayati Raj system consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Block Development Council (or Panchayat Samiti) at the intermediate level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. Together, these institutions are responsible for addressing local developmental needs and promoting participatory governance.
  • To ensure integrated planning at the district level, Article 243ZD of the Constitution provides for the establishment of a District Planning Committee (DPC). The DPC is entrusted with the responsibility of consolidating development plans prepared by both Panchayats and Municipalities and formulating a coordinated development strategy for the entire district.
  • Rather than functioning as an independent executive body, the District Planning Committee serves as a coordinating institution that harmonises the priorities and proposals emerging from elected rural and urban local bodies.
  • Its primary purpose is to encourage decentralised planning by incorporating local aspirations into district-wide development plans, thereby reinforcing the principles of democratic decentralisation.
  • Despite the constitutional importance accorded to District Planning Committees, their performance has varied considerably across states. In many parts of the country, DPCs have remained weak or inactive, limiting their effectiveness in district planning.
  • However, some states, particularly Kerala, have demonstrated more effective utilisation of these committees by integrating local planning with broader developmental objectives.

 

4. How are District Development Councils (DDCs) different from District Planning Committees (DPCs)?
 
 
  • The District Development Councils (DDCs) in Jammu and Kashmir were created through an executive order rather than by a legislative enactment.
  • Although the government describes DDCs as directly elected institutions intended to deepen democratic participation at the grassroots, their structure has generated considerable debate regarding their compatibility with the existing system of local governance.
  • One of the principal criticisms is that the DDC framework operates alongside, rather than through, constitutionally recognised local institutions such as Zila Parishads and Urban Local Bodies.
  • In contrast, the District Planning Committee (DPC), envisaged under Article 243ZD of the Constitution, is designed to consolidate development plans prepared by Panchayats and Municipalities into a unified district development strategy.
  • The DPC functions primarily as a coordinating body and does not exercise independent executive authority.
  • By comparison, DDCs have been vested with administrative and developmental responsibilities, creating a parallel layer of governance that alters the conventional relationship between elected local institutions and decision-making powers.
  • Another significant distinction lies in their approach to decentralisation. The DPC represents a bottom-up planning mechanism, where district-level priorities emerge from plans prepared by local elected bodies.
  • DDCs, on the other hand, are often viewed as following a top-down model, with authority flowing from higher levels of administration.
  • Critics contend that this arrangement places DDCs in competition with existing local institutions and reinforces bureaucratic oversight instead of promoting genuine democratic decentralisation.
  • Questions have also been raised regarding the principle of equal representation within the DDC system. Each district is allotted the same number of DDC constituencies irrespective of population size, resulting in disparities in the value of individual votes across districts.
  • For example, Srinagar, with a population of approximately 12 lakh, and Kishtwar, with nearly 2.5 lakh residents, are represented by an identical number of DDC members.
  • As a result, citizens in smaller districts enjoy relatively greater representation than those living in more populous districts, leading to concerns about unequal political representation.
  • Some analysts have likened DDCs to the Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) established under the Smart Cities Mission.
  • According to this view, while both structures appear to promote decentralised governance, they are largely administered through bureaucratic mechanisms and may override or sideline initiatives approved by elected local bodies. Consequently, DDCs are perceived by some as replacing, rather than complementing, constitutionally recognised local institutions.
  • The establishment of 280 elected DDC members across Jammu and Kashmir has also been interpreted by some observers as creating a parallel representative structure at the district level.
  • Historically, in regions experiencing political instability, higher levels of government have sometimes relied on district-based institutions to reduce the influence of state-level representative bodies.
  • In the context of Jammu and Kashmir, where the Legislative Assembly remained absent or functionally weakened for an extended period, critics argue that the DDC framework enabled several planning, developmental, and financial functions that would ordinarily be exercised by elected state representatives and local self-government institutions to remain under the influence of the Union administration.
 
 
5. Way Forward
 
Effective local self-governance extends beyond merely establishing administrative institutions or creating legal frameworks; it is essentially rooted in democratic political empowerment. Meaningful decentralisation can be achieved only by revitalising the District Planning Committee (DPC) framework envisioned under the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments. This requires strengthening local governments with adequate financial resources, institutional autonomy, and accountability to the electorate of the State. Such an approach promotes governance that is responsive to local aspirations, rather than a centrally directed administrative system in which decision-making remains concentrated under the control of the Union government
 
 
 
 
For Prelims: Panchayat Raj institutions, Local Governance
 
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance
 

 

Previous year Question

 
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. The minimum age prescribed for any person to be a member of Panchayat is 25 years.
2. A Panchayat reconstituted after premature dissolution continues only for the remainder period.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
 
2. In areas covered under the Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, what is the role/power of Gram Sabha? (UPSC 2012)
1. Gram Sabha has the power to prevent the alienation of land in the Scheduled Areas.
2. Gram Sabha has the ownership of minor forest produce.
3. Recommendation of Gram Sabha is required for granting a prospecting license or mining lease, for any minerals in the Scheduled Areas.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
 
3.The Government enacted the Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act in 1996. Which one of the following is not identified as its objective? (UPSC 2013)
A. To provide self-governance
B. To recognize traditional rights
C. To create autonomous regions in tribal areas
D. To free tribal people from exploitation
Answer: C
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 
 
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