ECO SENSITIVE ZONE(ESZ)

1.Context

The Centre has issued a seventh iteration of a draft notification declaring 56,825.7 square kilometre of Western Ghats, the biodiversity hotspot spread across Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, as an ecologically sensitive area (ESA).

2. Eco-Sensitive Zone

• As per the National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016), issued by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, land within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries is to be notified as eco-fragile zones or Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ).
• While the 10-km rule is implemented as a general principle, the extent of its application can vary. 
• Areas beyond 10 km can also be notified by the Union government as ESZs, if they hold larger ecologically important “sensitive corridors.”

1.1 Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ)

• The Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) are areas in India notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), GoI around Protected Areas, National Park and Wildlife sanctuaries. 

• Purpose: 

• To create some kind of "shock absorbers" to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas. 
• Therefore, these areas act as a buffer for protected areas and reduce developmental pressures around a wildlife sanctuary or national park.
• They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.

• Range:

• All identified areas around Protected Areas and wildlife corridors to be declared as ecologically fragile under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (National Wildlife Action Plan, 2002-2016).
• Eco-sensitive Zone could go up to 10 Kms around Protected Areas. 
• In cases where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are even beyond 10 Kms width. 
• Further, Eco-sensitive zones may not be uniform all around and they could be variable in width and extent.

• Prohibited activities: 

• Activities like industries which cause pollution Commercial mining, sawmills, the establishment of major hydroelectric projects (HEP), commercial use of wood, Tourism, discharge of effluents or any solid waste or production of hazardous substances are all prohibited.

• Regulated activities:

• Activities like the felling of trees, establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial use of natural water, erection of electrical cables, drastic change of agriculture system, e.g. adoption of heavy technology, pesticides etc., widening of roads.

• Permitted activities:

• Activities like ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, use of renewable energy sources, and adoption of green technology for all activities are permitted.

3. Reasons for the creation of an ecologically sensitive zone

• According to the guidelines issued by the Environment Ministry on February 9, 2011, ESZs are created as “shock absorbers” for the protected areas, to minimize the negative impact on the “fragile ecosystems” by certain human activities taking place nearby. Furthermore, these areas are meant to act as a transition zone from areas requiring higher protection to those requiring lesser protection.
• The guidelines also state that the ESZs are not meant to hamper the daily activities of people living in the vicinity, but are meant to guard the protected areas and “refine the environment around them”.
• To do so, the guidelines list the activities prohibited in an ESZ, such as commercial mining, saw mills, commercial use of wood, etc., apart from regulated activities like the felling of trees. Lastly, there are permitted activities like ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting, and organic farming, among others.

Judgement of Supreme Court

• On June 3, a three-judge bench of the Supreme Court heard a PIL which sought to protect forest lands in the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu, but was later expanded to cover the entire country.
• In its judgment, the court while referring to the 2011 guidelines as “reasonable”, as reported by Live Law, directed all states to have a mandatory 1-km ESZ from the demarcated boundaries of every protected forest land, national park and wildlife sanctuary.
• It also stated that no new permanent structure or mining will be permitted within the ESZ.
• If the existing ESZ goes beyond a 1-km buffer zone or if any statutory instrument prescribes a higher limit, then such extended boundary shall prevail, the court, as per the Live Law report, said.

4. Protests by the people

• Protests erupted across the high ranges of Kerala in response to the apex court’s directions. Due to the high density of human population near the notified protected areas, farmer’s groups and political parties have been demanding that all human settlements be exempt from the ESZ ruling.
• Alex Ozhukayil, the chairman of Kerala Independent Farmers’ Association (KIFA) claimed that the court’s decision would severely impact the livelihoods of farmers.
• He said, “The total extent of the wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala is eight lakh acres. If one km of ESZ is demarcated from their boundaries, around 4 lakh acres of human settlements, including farmlands, would come within that purview. This is a matter of sheer survival of lakhs of people.”
• The ruling Left Democratic Front and the Congress-led United Democratic Fund have both called for strikes in Idukki and Wayanad districts over the past weeks to oppose the 1-km order.
• Before the SC judgment, the Kerala state government had stated during an expert committee meeting of the Union Environment Ministry in March that all human settlements should be excluded from the buffer zones.
• The Kerala state government had proposed that for some national parks, such as the Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, the extent of the ESZ area should be reduced from the proposed uniform 1 km to an ESZ ranging from zero to 1 km in the eastern and south-eastern side of the national park.
• This was because the villagers occupying the densely populated settlements in these areas believed that the ESZ would restrict their agricultural and related activities.

4. Other similar challenges

• Developmental activities:

• Activities such as the construction of dams, roads, and urban and rural infrastructures in the ESZ, create interference, negatively impact the environment and imbalance the ecological system. 

• Blatant violations:

• To cater to the increasing demand for eco-tourism, the land around parks and sanctuaries are being cleared through deforestation, displacement of local people etc. 
• Failing to recognize the rights of forest communities and curbing poaching of animals, environmental legislations undermine the ESZs in favour of developmental activities. 

• Climate change:

• Biodiversity and climate change are interconnected, for example, the rise in global temperature has generated land, water and ecological stress on the ESZs. 

• Tourism-related Pollution:

• As the pressure of tourism is rising, the government is developing new sites and gateways to the ESZ. The tourists leave behind garbage such as plastic bags and bottles etc. which leads to environmental degradation.

• Local communities:

• Slash and burn techniques used in agriculture, the pressure of increasing population and the rising demand for firewood and forest produce, etc. exerts pressure on the protected areas.

5. Earlier protests 

• This is not the first time that Kerala has faced such protests. 
• In 2013, hartals first erupted in Idukki and Wayanad after the Kasturirangan committee report recommended that 60,000 km of the Western Ghats, covering 12 of Kerala’s 14 districts, be notified as ecologically sensitive areas.

EARTHQUAKE

 

1. Context

A preliminary magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck off Japan’s southern main island of Kyushu on Tuesday afternoon, with its epicentre located 10 km beneath the seabed, according to the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

2. What is an Earthquake?

 

• An earthquake is an intense shaking of the ground caused by movement under the earth’s surface. It happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another, according to USGS.
• This releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which spreads through the earth and cause the shaking of the ground.
• An earthquake is the sudden shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface caused by the release of energy stored in the earth’s crust.
• This energy is usually released when rocks deep underground break or slip along faults due to accumulated stress, sending out seismic waves that make the ground vibrate

• The earth’s crust is made of huge slabs of rock called tectonic plates, which are constantly moving slowly.

• When these plates grind against, collide, or move past each other, stress builds up at their boundaries or within faults.

• Once the stress exceeds the strength of rocks, they break suddenly, releasing energy in the form of seismic waves.

 

3. How do exactly Earthquakes Occur?

• As we know, the earth’s outermost surface, crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates. The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries, which are made up of faults.
  The tectonic plates constantly move at a slow pace, sliding past one another and bumping into each other.
• As the edges of the plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving.
• Earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults.
• The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.”

4. Earthquake waves

The release of energy during an earthquake generates waves which are called Earthquake Waves. Earthquake waves are basically of two types body waves and surface waves.

Body waves: They are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions traveling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface waves.

Surface waves: These waves move along the surface. The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The denser the material, the higher the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different densities.

There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

P-waves or ‘primary waves’ move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid, and solid materials.

P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of propagation. As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the material.

S-waves or secondary waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. They can travel only through solid materials. This characteristic of the S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

The direction of vibrations of S-waves is Perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass. Surface waves are considered to be the most damaging waves.

5. Measuring of Earthquakes

• The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
• The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude indicates the energy released during the quake. It is expressed in absolute numbers 0-10.
• The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale indicates the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

6. Turkey and Syria lie in a seismically active region

• The region where the earthquake struck lies along a well-known seismic fault line called the Anatolia tectonic block that runs through northern, central, and eastern Turkey.
• It is a seismically active zone-though not as active as, say, the Himalayan region which is one of the most dangerous regions in the world from the perspective of earthquakes.
• Large earthquakes, of magnitude 5 or higher, have not been very frequent in recent years. According to USGS, only three earthquakes of magnitude 6 or more have happened in the region since 1970. The last major quake in this area came in January 2020.
• The seismicity in this region is a result of interactions between the African, Eurasian, and Arabian plates. The Arabian plate is known to be pushing northward, which results in a slight westward movement for the Anatolian plate, where Turkey is located.
• The earthquake happened around the near-vertical fault line on the eastern Anatolian block, close to the Syrian border.

7. Shallow Earthquakes cause much greater damage

• Earthquakes in Turkey emerged from relatively shallow depths which made them devastating. The first earthquake, of magnitude 7.8, originated 17.9 km below the earth's surface.
• All the subsequent ones, including one of 7.5 magnitudes, emerged from even closer to the surface.
• Shallow earthquakes are generally more devastating because they carry greater energy when they emerge on the surface.
• Deeper earthquakes lose much of their energy by the time they come to the surface. The deeper quakes spread farther though- the seismic waves move conically upwards to the surface even as they lose energy while traveling greater distances and hence cause less damage.

8. Can earthquakes be predicted?

• An accurate prediction of an earthquake requires some sort of a precursory signal from within the earth that indicates a big quake is on the way.
• Moreover, the signal must occur only before large earthquakes so that it doesn’t indicate every small movement within the earth’s surface. Currently, there is no equipment to find such precursors, even if they exist.
• Theoretically, it is possible to offer a lead time of a few seconds between the time of the origin of the earthquake and the time it reaches the Earth’s surface.
• Seismic waves travel significantly slower than the speed of light between 5 and 13 km
  per second. So if the earthquake is detected as soon as it is triggered, information about it can be related a few seconds ahead of it reaching the ground.
• Such systems are already in use in some locations to issue alerts about earthquakes. However, these are not predictions. The alerts are issued post-event.
• Attempts to find reliable predictors of earthquakes have not been fruitful so far. Scientists have been able to map the areas that are earthquake-prone, and are likely to generate earthquakes in the future, but there is no way to predict when.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Earthquake, Tectonic plates, Hypocenter, Epicenter, Body waves, Surface waves, P-waves or ‘primary waves’, S-waves or secondary waves, Richter scale, and Seismic waves. For Mains: 1. What is an Earthquake? How do exactly Earthquakes Occur? Discuss the effects of Earthquakes.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following: (2013) Electromagnetic radiation  Geothermal energy  Gravitational force  Plate movements  Rotation of the earth  Revolution of the earth  Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?  (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only  (b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only  (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only  (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

FOREST FIRES

 

1. Context

More than 300,000 people have fled their homes as massive wildfires continue to sweep across France and Spain, driven by strong winds and extreme heat. In France, firefighters are battling fast-moving blazes near Bordeaux, while Spain has declared a state of emergency as fires rage around Madrid and other regions, reports stated.

2. What is a forest fire?

• A forest fire is an uncontrolled fire occurring in vegetation more than 1.8 meters (6 feet) in height. These fires often reach the proportions of a major conflagration and are sometimes begun by combustion and heat from surface and ground fires.
• A big forest fire may crown that is, spread rapidly through the topmost branches of the trees before involving undergrowth or the forest floor.
• As a result, violent blowups are common in forest fires, and they may assume the characteristics of a firestorm.
• Though forest fire is often seen as harmful, several forests are specifically fire-adapted; the species of plants and animals native to those ecosystems are enhanced by or dependent on the occurrence of fire to persist and reproduce.
• Lightning strikes in a dry forest occur naturally, and fire can improve ecosystem health by reducing competition, fertilizing the soil with ash, and decreasing diseases and pests. some plant species even require fire for their seeds to germinate.
• In many regions that have historically experienced forest fires, such as forested areas of the western united states, years of fire exclusion and suppression in the 19th and 20th centuries allowed fuels to accumulate, altering the vegetation communities present and leading to more extreme conflagrations when fires do occur.
• The use of prescribed fire, in which areas are burned intentionally and under controlled conditions, can restore those ecosystems and promote the conditions that were present historically before the removal of wildfire.

3. Causes of Forest Fires

• Natural causes like lightning can set fires on trees which may be spread by wind. Sometimes, High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstances for a fire to start.
• Man-made causes are usually the ones that become dangerous. Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette, electric spark, or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.
• Other human-led causes are land clearing and other agricultural activities, maintenance of grasslands for livestock management, extraction of non-wood forest products, industrial development, settlement, hunting, negligence, and arson.

4. Types of forest fires

 

 

Forest fires are classified into three major types based on the layer of the forest they affect: surface fires, ground fires, and crown fires. Each type differs in the way it spreads, the intensity of the fire, the damage it causes, and the methods required to control it. Understanding these types is important for forest management, disaster mitigation, and environmental conservation.

• Surface Fire

 

• A surface fire is the most common type of forest fire and burns the vegetation present on the forest floor.
• It consumes dry leaves, grasses, shrubs, fallen branches, twigs, and other organic debris without immediately affecting the upper canopy of trees.
• Surface fires generally spread at a moderate pace and are less intense than crown fires.
• However, if weather conditions become extremely hot, dry, and windy, these fires can climb up tree trunks or through low-hanging branches and eventually develop into crown fires.
• Although surface fires are relatively easier to control, they can still cause significant ecological damage by destroying young plants, seedlings, shrubs, and the habitats of many insects, reptiles, birds, and small mammals.
• In some ecosystems, however, naturally occurring low-intensity surface fires play an important ecological role by clearing accumulated dead vegetation, recycling nutrients into the soil, and promoting the regeneration of certain fire-adapted plant species.

 

• Ground Fire

 

• A ground fire burns beneath the surface of the forest by igniting organic matter such as peat, humus, roots, and partially decomposed vegetation.
• Unlike surface fires, ground fires often produce very little visible flame and instead smolder underground for extended periods, sometimes lasting for weeks or even months. Because they remain hidden below the soil, they are extremely difficult to detect and extinguish.
• Ground fires are particularly common in forests with thick peat deposits or organic soils. They can severely damage root systems, weaken or kill standing trees, and release enormous amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
• Even after appearing to be extinguished, these fires can reignite under favorable conditions, making them one of the most persistent and challenging forms of forest fires.

 

• Crown Fire

 

• A crown fire is the most intense and destructive type of forest fire. It spreads rapidly through the crowns or canopies of trees, especially in dense forests with continuous vegetation.
• Once the flames reach the upper branches, strong winds can carry the fire from one tree to another, allowing it to spread at a very high speed over large areas.
• Crown fires generate extremely high temperatures and are capable of destroying entire forest ecosystems within a short period.
• They cause extensive loss of biodiversity, devastate wildlife habitats, and often threaten nearby human settlements, infrastructure, and agricultural lands.
• Due to their high intensity and rapid spread, crown fires are exceptionally difficult to control and usually require large-scale firefighting operations, including aerial water bombing and coordinated ground efforts.

5. Forest fires in Odisha

• A sudden jump in the incidents of fires across Odisha resulted in a massive loss of flora and fauna in the state's forests.
• A prolonged dry spell since October 2022 and the accumulation of inflammable material such as dry leaves are some of the reasons that started these forest fires.
• Some of the fires may have also been caused by human-made reasons. The tribal people set fire to forests for shifting cultivation, and collection of mahua flowers and kendu leaves.
• Forests are set on fire to cultivate turmeric in the Baliguda forest division in the Kandhamal district.
• Regeneration of the forests will be affected due to wildfires. The seeds which are supposed to germinate in the monsoon rain get burnt due to ground fires in the forest areas, affecting the forest growth.
• Forest fires result in the loss of timber, fruit-bearing trees, and medicinal plants. They also pose a threat to wildlife and their habitat areas.
• The forest department did not learn from the 2021 forest fires when a record 51,968 forest fire incidents occurred in the state. Massive fires had broken out in Similipal National Park in the Mayurbhanj district, which is one of the major biospheres of Asia.

Source: The Logical Indian

6. Mitigation measures by the Government

• The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is razed each year.
• The major cause of this failure is the slow and gradual approach to the problem.
•  Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire management program are lacking in the country. 
• Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centers, coordination among Ministers, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management, and extension programs are missing.
• Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change has prepared a National Master plan for Forest Fire Control. The Forest Survey of India (FSI) monitors the incidence of wildfires.

Previous year Question

1. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2019) 1. Chhattisgarh 2. Madhya Pradesh 3. Maharashtra 4. Odisha With reference to the State mentioned above, in terms of the percentage of forest cover to the total area of the State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order? A. 2-3-1-4 B. 2-3-4-1 C. 3-2-4-1 D. 3-2-1-4 Answer: C

 

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Forest fires, Forest Survey of India (FSI), Surface fire, Ground fire, Crown fire, High atmospheric temperatures, and dryness, Climate Change, Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC),  For Mains: 1. What are various reasons for forest fires? Discuss the consequences of fires and suggest some solutions to prevent them.

 

Source: Down to Earth

 

 

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ)

 

 

1. Context

 

A proposal to charge fees on vessels transiting the Strait of Hormuz, which has drawn mixed signals from Iran and Oman, may offer a path to end the stalemate and revive peace negotiations with the United States as the West Asia conflict enters its sixth month.

 

2. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a maritime zone that extends beyond a country's territorial sea and is established by coastal nations according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The EEZ provides a sovereign state with certain rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources within that zone.

Key features of an EEZ include:

1. Resource Rights: The coastal state has the exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources found in the waters, seabed, and subsoil within the EEZ. This includes resources like fish, oil, gas, and minerals.

2. Sovereign Rights: The nation holds sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources, both living (like fish) and non-living (such as oil and gas) within the EEZ.

3. Jurisdiction: The coastal state has the authority to regulate various activities within the zone, including scientific research, environmental protection, and the construction of artificial islands or structures for economic purposes.

An EEZ typically extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) from the coastline, but it can be modified based on specific geographical conditions or agreements between neighboring countries. It's important to note that while coastal states have rights within their EEZs, other nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these zones, as well as the right to lay submarine cables and pipelines in accordance with international law

 

3.Rights of the country in the EEZ

Within their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), countries have specific rights granted by international law, primarily defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Some of these rights include:

• The coastal state has the exclusive right to explore and exploit natural resources, both living (like fish) and non-living (such as oil, gas, and minerals), within its EEZ
• Nations can conduct various economic activities, including fishing, mining, and the extraction of oil and gas, subject to their own regulations and in compliance with international agreements and environmental conservation principles
• Coastal states have the right to conduct scientific research and surveys related to marine ecosystems, resources, and environmental factors within their EEZ
• Countries are responsible for the conservation and management of the marine environment within their EEZ, ensuring that activities carried out do not harm the ecosystem or endanger marine life
• The coastal state has regulatory jurisdiction over the EEZ, allowing it to establish and enforce laws related to customs, immigration, sanitation, and other matters concerning economic activities and environmental protection within this zone
• Nations can construct artificial islands, installations, and structures for economic purposes within their EEZ, provided they comply with international regulations and environmental safeguards
• While coastal states have exclusive rights to the resources within their EEZ, other countries have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these zones for purposes like shipping, laying cables, and conducting military activities, as permitted by international law

4.Key Terms regarding EEZ

Territorial Waters

The territorial waters of a nation encompass all water regions under its authority, consisting of internal waters, the territorial sea, contiguous zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and potentially extending to the continental shelf.

Territorial Sea

The territorial sea is a concept in international law that refers to the belt of coastal waters extending from a country's baseline (usually the low-water line along the coast) outwards for up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 kilometers), as recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Contiguous Zone

The contiguous zone is an area of water that extends beyond a country's territorial sea, stretching up to 24 nautical miles (44.4 kilometers) from the baseline. In this zone, a coastal state can exert limited control for the purpose of preventing or punishing infringements of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary regulations within its territory or territorial sea. While it allows for certain enforcement measures, it doesn't grant full sovereignty, unlike the territorial sea

 

5. India and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

• India has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) from its coastline.
• Within this zone, India holds exclusive rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources, both living and non-living, such as fish, oil, gas, minerals, and other marine resources.
• The EEZ of India is significant, offering opportunities for economic activities like fishing, offshore energy exploration, scientific research, and environmental protection.
• India exercises jurisdictional control over this zone, regulating various activities and safeguarding the marine environment in accordance with international laws, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• Additionally, while India has exclusive rights to the resources within its EEZ, other nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these waters, respecting India's sovereign rights and complying with international laws and agreements.

5.Way forward

 

The vessel with 21 Indians and one Vietnamese crew managed to sail on its power after the attack and reached Mumbai on Monday escorted by the Indian Coast Guard Ship (INGS) Vikram. Upon arrival, a Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal team carried out a preliminary assessment of Chem Pluto and analysis of the area of attack and debris found on the ship points towards a drone attack, the Navy said. “However, further forensic and technical analysis will be required to establish the vector of attack, including type and amount of explosive used,” it stated. A joint investigation by various agencies is also underway.

 

 

For Prelims: Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), UNCLOS, Contigous Zone   For Mains: General Studies II - International Law and Governance regarding EEZ

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022) 1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention. 2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. 3. The Exclusive Economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Which of the statements given above are correct? A.1 and 2 only B.2 and 3 only C.1 and 3 only D.1, 2 and 3 Answer (D)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

INDIA SEMICONDUCTOR MISSION 2.0

 

 

1. Context

 

The Union Cabinet recently approved the second iteration of India’s ambitious Semiconductor Mission, with an outlay of Rs Rs 1.27 lakh crore. The fresh scheme will carry a key focus on subsidising the supply chain around chip manufacturing to attract companies producing commodities like gases, and chemicals used in the production process. The duration of the scheme is six years.

 

 

2. India Semiconductor Mission 2.0

 

 

• Under India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 2.0, the government has expanded the range of incentives while reducing its financial contribution for well-established segments of the semiconductor ecosystem. It has also revamped the Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme to encourage greater participation from large corporations and private investors.
• According to S. Krishnan, Secretary of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), these changes are intended to strengthen private-sector investment and enhance the industry's long-term sustainability.
• In comparison with the original India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), the second phase introduces a revised incentive framework with lower government support for manufacturing projects. Under the earlier scheme, semiconductor fabrication units and assembly facilities were eligible for a uniform capital expenditure (capex) subsidy of 50%.
• Under ISM 2.0, the subsidy structure has been differentiated according to the type of facility. Silicon fabrication plants are eligible for a 40% government subsidy, while other fabrication units can receive 35% support.
• Likewise, advanced semiconductor packaging projects qualify for a 35% incentive, whereas conventional packaging facilities are eligible for 25% assistance. In addition to manufacturing incentives, the new mission also provides financial support for research and development (R&D) and skill and talent development to strengthen India's semiconductor ecosystem.
• During the initial phase of the India Semiconductor Mission, the government's primary emphasis was on establishing core semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure.
• This included support for a semiconductor fabrication facility being developed by the Tata Group, along with assembly, testing, marking, and packaging (ATMP) units by companies such as Micron Technology, Tata Group, CG Power, and Kaynes Semicon, among others, laying the foundation for India's domestic semiconductor manufacturing capabilities

 

3. Why is India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 2.0 Significant for India?

 

 

• The launch of India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 2.0 represents a major strategic initiative aimed at integrating India more deeply into the global semiconductor value chain.
• By strengthening domestic chip manufacturing and packaging capabilities, the mission seeks to increase value addition within India's rapidly growing electronics industry while reducing dependence on foreign suppliers.
• Semiconductors have emerged as one of the world's most strategically important technologies, powering products ranging from household appliances and smartphones to advanced defence systems and aerospace equipment.
• In an era marked by supply chain disruptions and geopolitical competition, securing semiconductor capabilities has become a national priority for many countries, including India.
• According to Ashok Chandak, President of the India Electronics and Semiconductor Association (IESA), the next phase of the mission is designed to transform India from merely participating in the semiconductor industry to becoming a key structural player in the global ecosystem.
• The country's vision now extends beyond chip fabrication to developing strengths in semiconductor design, electronic design automation (EDA) tools, materials, manufacturing equipment, and other upstream components that are essential for technological self-reliance and sustained global competitiveness.
• India has set ambitious long-term goals for its semiconductor sector. By 2029, the country aims to acquire the capability to design and manufacture semiconductor chips that can meet nearly 70–75% of domestic demand.
• Looking further ahead, by 2035, India aspires to establish itself among the world's leading semiconductor nations, supported by a robust manufacturing ecosystem, advanced research capabilities, and a highly skilled workforce.

 

 

4. How is India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 2.0 Different from ISM 1.0?

 

 

• Introduced in 2021, the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 1.0 was designed as a government-led programme to establish a comprehensive semiconductor ecosystem covering chip fabrication, assembly, testing, packaging, semiconductor design, and display manufacturing. Since its launch, the initiative has attracted cumulative investment commitments of nearly ₹1.64 lakh crore.
• As part of ISM 1.0, the Central Government approved 12 semiconductor projects, including Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging (ATMP/OSAT) facilities by companies such as Micron Technology, along with a semiconductor fabrication plant being developed by Tata Electronics in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (PSMC).
• Several projects sanctioned under the first phase have already become operational. Manufacturing facilities established by Micron Technology, Kaynes Semicon, and CG Semi have commenced commercial production, while the Tata semiconductor fabrication unit is still under construction. Chips manufactured at these facilities are also being supplied to international markets through exports.
• While ISM 1.0 primarily concentrated on building semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure, the government subsequently recognised the need to strengthen the broader semiconductor ecosystem and review the existing incentive structure, including the 50% project-cost subsidy available for chip packaging units.
• Reflecting this broader vision, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, in the Union Budget 2026–27, announced India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) 2.0, with an expanded focus on semiconductor equipment, materials, indigenous intellectual property (IP), and resilient supply chains.
• Unlike its predecessor, ISM 2.0 extends government support well beyond fabrication facilities. The revised mission includes incentives for semiconductor manufacturing equipment, specialty materials, chemicals, design software and tools, research and development (R&D), workforce development, and supply-chain resilience.
• This represents a transition from a manufacturing-centric model to a holistic value-chain approach covering every stage of the semiconductor ecosystem.
• Another major feature of ISM 2.0 is the government's willingness to provide not only financial grants but also equity participation in eligible large enterprises and start-ups operating in strategic areas such as semiconductor design and advanced technologies.
• The level of government support will be determined partly by a company's capacity to attract private investment and mobilise additional capital.
• Enterprises investing in the production of semiconductor manufacturing equipment, specialty chemicals, and industrial gases essential for chip fabrication can receive Central Government incentives of up to 30% of the total project cost under the new mission.
• To encourage technological innovation, ISM 2.0 provides substantial support for research and development activities. Eligible R&D projects focused on advanced semiconductor technologies may receive financial assistance covering up to 75% of project costs, through combined contributions from the Central and State Governments.
• Comparable incentives have also been proposed for initiatives aimed at developing a highly skilled semiconductor workforce.
• The Research-Linked Incentive (RLI) component of ISM 2.0 places special emphasis on developing 7-nanometre semiconductor technology, reflecting India's aspiration to move into advanced chip manufacturing.
• In contrast, the semiconductor fabrication plant currently being built by Tata Electronics is expected to manufacture 28-nanometre chips, which continue to have strong commercial demand across industries but are considered a mature technology rather than the latest generation of semiconductor manufacturing.

 

 

5. Global Semiconductor Supply Chain – A Highly Concentrated Ecosystem

 

 

• The global semiconductor industry is characterised by a highly concentrated supply chain, with a limited number of countries and companies controlling critical stages of chip production.
• Taiwan and South Korea together contribute nearly 80% of the world's advanced semiconductor foundry capacity. In addition, ASML, headquartered in the Netherlands, is the only company that manufactures Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithography machines, the indispensable equipment required to produce the most sophisticated semiconductor chips.
• The semiconductor manufacturing process depends on a complex network of specialised raw materials and components sourced from countries such as Japan, Germany, the United States, and China.
• Essential inputs include silicon wafers, specialty gases, and high-purity chemicals. At the design stage, Arm, a UK-based semiconductor architecture company in which Nvidia holds a stake, supplies processor architectures that power a vast range of electronic devices, including smartphones, personal computers, and gaming systems.
• As a result, the global semiconductor industry functions as an interconnected and highly specialised ecosystem with substantial technological, financial, and intellectual property barriers to entry.
• The global market for semiconductor chip design is largely dominated by leading United States-based companies, including Nvidia, Qualcomm, and AMD. Among these firms, Nvidia has established itself as the market leader in high-performance Graphics Processing Units (GPUs).
• While initially recognised for its dominance in the gaming industry, the company has expanded its influence into areas such as cryptocurrency mining, data centres, high-performance computing, and artificial intelligence (AI), making it one of the most significant players in the global semiconductor ecosystem.

 

 

6. Why Does the Semiconductor Supply Chain Matter?

 

 

• The semiconductor supply chain has become a strategic asset because semiconductor chips serve as the foundation of modern technology. They are indispensable for a wide range of applications, including smartphones, artificial intelligence (AI), electric vehicles (EVs), medical equipment, satellites, telecommunications networks, industrial automation, and advanced defence systems.
• A significant share of global advanced semiconductor manufacturing is concentrated in Taiwan, making the international supply chain highly vulnerable to disruptions. Any escalation of geopolitical tensions, particularly across the Taiwan Strait, could interrupt chip production and trigger widespread shortages, affecting industries and economies worldwide.
• The semiconductor ecosystem is increasingly viewed as a pillar of economic and technological security. Consequently, many countries are investing heavily in developing domestic semiconductor manufacturing, design, and supply-chain capabilities to reduce reliance on foreign suppliers, improve self-sufficiency, and build resilient supply networks against future disruptions.
• The global race for semiconductor leadership has intensified as advanced chip technologies become central to innovation and national power.
• A country's ability to develop and control cutting-edge semiconductor technologies is now closely associated with its competitiveness in artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, advanced manufacturing, next-generation communications, and national defence, making semiconductors a key driver of economic growth and strategic influence

 

 

For Prelims: Semiconductor, Transistors, Fabrication Technology   For Mains:  1. Discuss the recent global chip shortage and its implications for India's semiconductor industry. What steps has India taken to enhance its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities? (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which of the following fabrication techniques is ideally suited for digital ICs? (KVS TGT WET 2017)   A. Monolithic        B. Thin film      C. Hybrid              D. Thin film and hybrid   Answer: A

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

RIGHT TO PROTEST

 

 

 

1. Context

 

People from across the country gathered at Jantar Mantar in central Delhi on July 20 for the Cockroach Janta Party’s (CJP) “Chalo Sansad” march, carrying placards demanding reforms in the National Testing Agency (NTA) and the resignation of Union Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan. 

 

 

2. Is the Right to Protest Absolute?

 

 

• The right to protest is one of the defining features of a democratic society. In India, citizens have the constitutional freedom to express their opinions, criticize government policies, and peacefully assemble to voice their concerns.
• However, while the Constitution guarantees this freedom, the right to protest is not an absolute right. It is subject to reasonable restrictions to ensure that the exercise of one person's rights does not infringe upon the rights of others or threaten public order.
• The Constitution of India does not explicitly mention a separate "right to protest." Instead, this right is derived from a combination of Fundamental Rights guaranteed under Article 19.
• Article 19(1)(a) guarantees the freedom of speech and expression, enabling citizens to express their views and dissent against government actions.
• Article 19(1)(b) provides the right to assemble peacefully and without arms, while Article 19(1)(c) guarantees the freedom to form associations or unions. Together, these provisions form the constitutional foundation for peaceful protests and demonstrations in India.
• However, these freedoms are not unlimited. The Constitution itself recognizes that unrestricted exercise of these rights may sometimes conflict with larger public interests.
• Therefore, Article 19(2) empowers the State to impose reasonable restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency, morality, contempt of court, defamation, and incitement to an offence.
• Similarly, Article 19(3) permits reasonable restrictions on the right to peaceful assembly in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India and the maintenance of public order.
• As a result, while citizens have the constitutional right to organize protests, they cannot claim an unrestricted right to conduct demonstrations in any manner or at any place.
• A protest that turns violent, damages public or private property, obstructs emergency services, or indefinitely blocks roads and public spaces may lawfully be regulated or restricted by the authorities.
• The objective of these restrictions is not to suppress dissent but to ensure that the exercise of one group’s rights does not adversely affect the rights and freedoms of other citizens.
• The Supreme Court of India has repeatedly emphasized the importance of balancing the right to protest with the interests of society.
• In Himat Lal K. Shah v. Commissioner of Police (1973), the Court held that citizens have the right to hold public meetings, but the State is empowered to regulate the use of public streets and public places through reasonable regulations.
• This decision clarified that while the State cannot arbitrarily prohibit public assemblies, it can prescribe reasonable conditions regarding the time, place, and manner of protests.

 

 

3. What Standards Govern Police Action?

 

 

• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), in its Manual on Human Rights for Police Officers, underscores that effective law enforcement and the protection of human rights are not competing goals but mutually reinforcing responsibilities.
• According to the manual, professional policing in a democratic society must be firmly rooted in constitutional values, ensuring that the police act not merely as law enforcement agencies but as guardians of citizens' rights while upholding the rule of law and maintaining public safety without discrimination.
• The manual further explains that a democracy such as India requires a policing system that treats all individuals equally and safeguards their rights alongside maintaining peace and security.
• It cautions that violations of human rights by police personnel can have far-reaching consequences. Such actions not only weaken public trust in law enforcement agencies but also damage the credibility of public institutions and, in certain situations, may contribute to heightened social tensions and civil unrest.
• These standards are also in harmony with the United Nations Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials, which lay down internationally accepted norms governing police conduct.
• The principles mandate that any use of force by law enforcement authorities must satisfy the tests of legality, necessity, and proportionality.
• In other words, force should be exercised only when permitted by law, only to the extent required by the circumstances, and in a manner proportionate to the legitimate objective being pursued

 

 

4. When Can the Police Use Force?

 

 

• The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) empowers an Executive Magistrate or a police officer authorised by law to direct the dispersal of an unlawful assembly or any gathering that is likely to disrupt public peace or endanger public order.
• If the participants fail to comply with such lawful directions, the authorities are legally permitted to disperse the assembly through the use of force. However, this power is not unrestricted and must be exercised strictly within the limits prescribed by law.
• The Code of Conduct for the Police in India stresses that coercive measures should always be the last resort. It advises police personnel to first rely on peaceful methods such as dialogue, persuasion, counselling, warnings, and other non-violent means to encourage compliance.
• Only when these measures prove ineffective and the use of force becomes unavoidable should force be employed. Even then, the police are expected to use only the minimum amount of force necessary to achieve the lawful objective, ensuring that the response remains proportionate to the situation.
• The recent protests have also reignited concerns regarding police accountability and transparency, particularly after visual evidence surfaced showing several police personnel without clearly visible name badges or with their faces covered.
• Such practices make it difficult to identify individual officers and can hinder accountability in cases involving allegations of excessive force or misconduct.
• The BNSS specifically mandates that every police officer making an arrest must display clear and visible identification bearing his or her name.
• However, the law does not prescribe an equivalent requirement for police personnel engaged in crowd management, riot control, or the dispersal of public assemblies.
• This legal gap has prompted renewed discussions on whether similar identification standards should also apply during crowd-control operations to strengthen transparency, public confidence, and accountability in policing.

 

 

5. Way Forward

 

 

Over the years, the Supreme Court of India has consistently developed a robust body of jurisprudence defining both the scope of the constitutional right to protest and the legal boundaries within which police authorities may exercise their powers. Through a series of landmark judgments, the Court has sought to strike a balance between protecting democratic dissent and preserving public order, while ensuring that law enforcement agencies remain accountable for their actions.

 

 

 

For Premins:  Indian Polity and Governance, Fundamental rights, Fundamental Duties   For Mains: General Studies II: Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Other than the Fundamental Rights, which of the following parts of the Constitution of India reflect/reflects the principles and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)? (UPSC CSE 2020) Preamble Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Duties Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 only  (c) 1 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d) 2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2011) Right to education Right to equal access to public service Right to food. Which of the above is/are Human Right/Human Rights under “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only  (c) 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d)   1.Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing theirstructural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2021)

Source: The Hindu