KUNDANKULAM NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
- The Kudankulam project is the outcome of a bilateral agreement between India and Russia. It involves collaboration between the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Russia's Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation
- The KKNPP has several VVER (Water-Water Energetic Reactor) pressurized water reactors, with each unit designed for electricity generation. As of the last update in 2022, Units 1 and 2 were operational, while Units 3 and 4 were under construction
- Each operational unit has a capacity of around 1,000 megawatts (MW). The plant aims to contribute significantly to India's electricity production, especially for the southern region
- The plant is equipped with advanced safety measures and technologies to ensure the safe operation of nuclear reactors, including redundant safety systems and international safety standards
- The project faced opposition and protests from local communities and activists concerned about the potential environmental impact, safety issues, and displacement of people due to the construction and operation of the plant
- The collaboration between India and Russia in the Kudankulam project holds geopolitical significance and represents a key aspect of bilateral cooperation in the field of nuclear energy
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Nuclear Fission: This process involves the splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, into smaller fragments when bombarded by neutrons. This reaction releases a significant amount of energy along with additional neutrons, which can further trigger more fission reactions, creating a chain reaction.
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Nuclear Fusion: Fusion is the process of combining two light atomic nuclei, such as hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium), to form a heavier nucleus. This process occurs at extremely high temperatures and pressures, like those found in the core of stars. Fusion reactions release tremendous amounts of energy and are the basis of the sun's energy production.
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Electricity Generation: Nuclear reactors are designed to harness the heat generated by nuclear reactions to produce steam, which drives turbines and generates electricity. This process is used in nuclear power plants.
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Diverse Applications: Apart from electricity generation, nuclear energy finds applications in various fields like medicine (radiation therapy and medical imaging), industry (sterilization, food preservation, and material testing), and space exploration (powering spacecraft and probes)
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High Energy Density: Nuclear reactions release an immense amount of energy from relatively small amounts of nuclear fuel compared to other energy sources like fossil fuels.
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Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear energy generation produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions during the electricity production process. However, there are considerations regarding emissions associated with uranium mining, reactor construction, and waste management.
- Reduced Greenhouse Gases: Nuclear power plants produce electricity without emitting greenhouse gases during the power generation process. This makes nuclear energy a valuable resource for combating climate change by offering a low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels
- Continuous Power Generation: Nuclear power provides a stable and consistent source of electricity that isn't affected by weather conditions. This reliability makes it a crucial component of the energy mix, especially in regions where renewable energy sources might be intermittent
- As global energy demand continues to rise, nuclear power can contribute significantly to meeting this demand, especially in densely populated areas or regions with high energy requirements
- Access to reliable and affordable electricity fosters economic growth and development, which nuclear energy can help support
- The nuclear energy sector drives innovation and technological advancements that can have broader applications beyond electricity generation, contributing to scientific progress
- Advancements in nuclear technology, such as smaller modular reactors (SMRs), hold the potential to provide localized power in remote areas or regions lacking access to centralized power grids
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Moderation and Cooling: Heavy water serves as a moderator, slowing down the neutrons produced in the nuclear fission process, enabling them to efficiently cause additional fission reactions. Additionally, heavy water acts as a coolant, transferring heat away from the reactor core.
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Fuel: PHWRs use natural uranium as fuel, which doesn’t require enrichment as it contains a higher percentage of uranium-238, the isotope suitable for sustaining a nuclear chain reaction. This simplifies the fuel fabrication process.
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Pressurized System: The reactor operates at high pressure to keep the heavy water in a liquid state even at high temperatures, which helps prevent the water from boiling. The pressurized system enhances the efficiency of heat transfer and maintains stability within the reactor.
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Fuel Channel Design: The fuel assemblies are arranged in horizontal pressure tubes or channels within the reactor core. These channels allow for online refueling, where fresh fuel can be inserted or spent fuel removed while the reactor is operating.
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Control Rods: Control rods made of materials that absorb neutrons are inserted or withdrawn from the channels to regulate the rate of the nuclear reaction and maintain the reactor at a steady power level.
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Heat Exchange and Steam Generation: The heat produced by the nuclear fission reactions is transferred to a separate, secondary system through heat exchangers. This secondary system generates steam that drives turbines to produce electricity
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Fuel: The reactor core contains fuel assemblies made up of fissile material, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. Neutrons bombard the fuel, causing the nuclei of these atoms to split in a controlled chain reaction.
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Neutron Moderation: Moderator materials, like water or graphite, slow down the fast neutrons produced during fission. Slower neutrons are more likely to cause additional fission reactions, sustaining the chain reaction
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Heat Production: The nuclear fission process generates an immense amount of heat within the reactor core. This heat energy raises the temperature of the surrounding coolant.
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Coolant Circulation: The heated coolant, which can be water, gas, or liquid metal, absorbs the heat from the reactor core. This coolant transfers the heat away from the core to prevent overheating
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Heat Exchange: The hot coolant passes through heat exchangers or steam generators, where it heats a secondary loop of water, converting it into high-pressure steam.
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Turbine Operation: The steam drives turbines connected to generators, causing them to rotate. The rotating turbines generate electricity through electromagnetic induction in the generators
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Control Rods: Control rods made of materials that absorb neutrons are inserted or withdrawn from the reactor core to regulate the rate of the nuclear chain reaction. Adjusting these control rods helps maintain a steady power output and prevents the reactor from overheating.
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Monitoring and Safety Systems: Reactors have sophisticated monitoring systems and safety measures to ensure stable and safe operation. These include redundant safety systems, emergency shutdown mechanisms, and containment structures to mitigate risks and prevent accidents
- Electricity Grid Connection: The electricity generated in the generators is transmitted to the grid through transformers. It is then distributed for use in homes, industries, and various sectors
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance and General Science
For Mains: General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
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VEER BAAL DIWAS
- Veer Baal Diwas is a Sikh festival commemorating the sacrifice of the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru. The sons, who were aged between 6 and 9, were martyred by the Mughals on December 26, 1704, at the Battle of Chamkaur Sahib.
- In 1704, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ordered an attack on Anandpur Sahib, the Sikh holy city. The Sikhs held out for several months but were eventually forced to flee. The Mughals treacherously violated a treaty with the Sikhs and attacked the retreating Sikhs, leading to the martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh.
- Veer Baal Diwas is a significant day in Sikh history. It is a reminder of the courage and sacrifice of the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, who died defending their faith and their people. The festival also celebrates the importance of family and community in Sikhism.
- Veer Baal Diwas is celebrated by Sikhs all over the world. In India, the festival is a public holiday. Sikhs gather at gurdwaras (Sikh temples) to commemorate the martyrdom of the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh. Prayers are offered, kirtan (Sikh hymns) are sung, and stories of the martyrs are told.
3. What led to the attack on Anandpur Sahib?
The attack on Anandpur Sahib in 1704 was a complex event fueled by several factors, including:
Political Tensions
- Guru Gobind Singh's stance: As the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh established Anandpur Sahib as a centre of Sikh learning and military power. His refusal to pay tribute and advocacy for religious freedom challenged Mughal authority, creating friction with Emperor Aurangzeb.
- Shifting alliances: Some hill rajas, initially allies with Guru Gobind Singh, later sided with the Mughals for personal gain. This betrayal weakened Sikh defences and paved the way for the attack.
Religious Intolerance
- Aurangzeb's policies: His reign was marked by growing intolerance towards non-Muslims. Forced conversions and temple destruction alienated the Sikh community, escalating religious tensions.
- Sikh defiance: Guru Gobind Singh actively opposed these policies, further deepening the conflict with the Mughal Empire.
Strategic Considerations
- Mughal expansion: Aurangzeb sought to expand his empire and suppress any potential threats, including the rising Sikh power. Anandpur Sahib's strategic location and growing influence made it a target.
- Military advantage: The Mughals possessed superior numbers and firepower, which they believed would give them a decisive edge in the conflict.
4. About Guru Gobind Singh
Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last human Guru of Sikhism, was a remarkable figure who left an indelible mark on history. Born in Patna, Bihar, in 1666, Gobind Singh witnessed the turbulent times of Mughal rule and religious persecution. His father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was martyred defending religious freedom, and Gobind Singh ascended the spiritual throne at the tender age of nine. Facing constant threats from the Mughals, Gobind Singh established Anandpur Sahib as a centre of learning and military training. He instilled a spirit of courage and self-reliance in the Sikh community.
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Philosophy and Teachings
- Khalsa: His most significant contribution was the creation of the Khalsa, a baptized Sikh warrior community. The Khalsa embodies the ideals of equality, justice, and unwavering faith.
- Five Ks: He introduced the Five Ks (Kesh, Kanga, Kirpan, Kaccha, Kara) as symbols of Sikh identity and commitment to their faith. These symbols represent spiritual purity, courage, self-defence, humility, and divine unity.
- Universal Brotherhood: Gobind Singh emphasized the concept of Sarbat Khalsa, meaning the entire Sikh community as one. He advocated for interfaith harmony and respect for all religions.
Literary Contributions
- Dasam Granth: He compiled the Dasam Granth, a collection of hymns and poems, which continues to inspire Sikhs today.
- Zafarnama: His letter to Aurangzeb, Zafarnama, is a powerful treatise on justice and religious freedom.
Contributions to Sikhism
- Formalization of Sikh Religion: Gobind Singh standardized Sikh rituals and practices, establishing the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Sikh Guru.
- Transformation of Sikh Community: He transformed the Sikhs from a peaceful community into a formidable force capable of defending their faith. His teachings laid the foundation for the vibrant Sikh culture and identity we see today.
Legacy
Guru Gobind Singh's legacy lives on in the hearts and minds of millions of Sikhs worldwide. His courage, wisdom, and commitment to justice continue to inspire generations. His creation of the Khalsa and his teachings on equality and religious freedom remain relevant even today.
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For Prelims: Guru Gobind Singh, Veer Baal Diwas, Aurangzeb, Chamkaur Sahib Battle
For Mains:
1. Discuss the significance of Veer Baal Diwas as a commemoration of sacrifice and resilience. How does it contribute to the preservation of Sikh heritage and values? (250 Words)
2. Evaluate the impact of Guru Gobind Singh's philosophy and teachings on the transformation of the Sikh community. How did his creation of the Khalsa influence Sikh identity and practices? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. The birth place of Guru Gobind Singh ji is (HP TGT (Arts) TET 2016) A. Amritsar B. AnandpurSahib C. Fatehgarh Sahib D. Patna
2. The Government of India has decided to observe ‘Veer Baal Diwas’ on (NDA 2022) A. 6th October B. 26th November C. 26th December D. 6th December
3. Consider the following events of the reign of Aurangzeb and arrange them in chronological order: (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022) 1. Battle of Deorai 2. Defeat of Shuja near Banaras 3. Battle of Samugarh 4. Victory at Dharmat Select the correct answer from the code given below. A. 2, 4, 3 and 1 B. 1, 3, 4 and 2 C. 3, 4, 2 and 1 D. 4, 2, 1 and 3
4. Battle of Chamkaur was fought between Guru Gobind Singh and _____. (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022) A. Mughals B. Britishers C. Portuguese D. Khaljis Answers: 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4- A |
Source: The Indian Express
UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)
The primary functions of the UGC include:
- Allocating funds to universities and colleges.
- Formulating and implementing academic standards for higher education institutions.
- Monitoring and maintaining the quality of teaching, research, and examinations in universities.
- Providing guidance and coordination among universities and colleges in the country.
- Supporting and promoting innovations and improvements in the education system
University Grants Commission (UGC) Appointment, Tenure, and Eligibility
| Position | Appointment Method | Tenure | Minimum Eligibility |
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| Chairperson | Appointed by the President of India | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review) | Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges. |
| Member | Appointed by the President of India | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review) | Renowned scholar/expert with: * Proven track record in teaching/research/administration in relevant field. * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor/equivalent in a University/College/Institute of national importance. * Demonstrated commitment to higher education development. |
| Vice-Chancellor (University) | Appointed by Executive Council of the University | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years | Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in the sphere of higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges. |
| Dean (Faculty) or Director (School/Institute) | Appointed by Executive Council of the University/Governing Council of the Institute | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years | Eminent scholar with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in relevant field. * Exceptional research record and contributions to the discipline. * Strong administrative and leadership skills. |
| Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Proven track record of research publications in peer-reviewed journals. * Significant contribution to the discipline. * Experience in research supervision. |
| Associate Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Good academic record and publications. * Minimum 8 years of teaching/research experience in relevant field. |
| Assistant Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Master's degree with at least 55% marks and Ph.D. in relevant/allied/cognate discipline OR Master's degree with NET/SLET/SET qualification. |
The University Grants Commission (UGC) operates under statutory provisions outlined primarily in the University Grants Commission Act, 1956. Here are some of the key statutory provisions governing the UGC:
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University Grants Commission Act, 1956: This is the primary legislation that established the UGC. It defines the roles, functions, powers, and responsibilities of the Commission. It also outlines the composition of the UGC, appointment procedures, and its authority to allocate funds to universities and colleges.
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UGC (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2016: These regulations provide guidelines for institutions seeking the status of "Deemed to be University." They specify the criteria, application process, and conditions for granting this status.
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UGC (Minimum Standards of Instruction for the Grant of the First Degree through Non-formal/Distance Education) Regulations, 2017: These regulations specify the minimum standards for offering programs through distance education mode, ensuring quality education delivery.
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UGC (Open and Distance Learning) Regulations, 2017: These regulations govern the standards and norms for open and distance learning programs offered by universities and institutions in India.
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UGC (Establishment and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003: These regulations outline the norms and standards for the establishment and functioning of private universities, ensuring quality education.
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UGC (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal of Sexual Harassment of Women Employees and Students in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2015: These regulations mandate higher educational institutions to establish mechanisms for preventing and addressing sexual harassment.
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UGC (Promotion of Equity in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2012: These regulations aim to promote equity in higher education, focusing on providing opportunities to disadvantaged sections of society.
- UGC allocates funds to universities and colleges for their development, improvement, and maintenance
- Provides financial assistance to encourage and support research activities in various academic disciplines
- UGC establishes and maintains academic standards in higher education to ensure quality across universities and colleges
- Develops frameworks and guidelines for curriculum development in different academic programs
- UGC recognizes universities in India and provides approval for the establishment of new universities
- Monitors the quality of education, teaching, research, and examinations in universities to ensure adherence to set standards
- UGC promotes and supports research activities by providing grants, fellowships, and scholarships to students and faculty members
- Facilitates coordination and cooperation among universities and other higher educational institutions
- Advises the Central and State governments on matters related to higher education policies, regulations, and development
- Provides guidance, assistance, and recommendations to universities for enhancing their academic and research standards
- Conducts assessments and accredits higher education institutions to ensure and improve quality
- Undertakes periodic reviews and assessments to maintain and enhance the quality of education
- Implements programs and initiatives to promote access to higher education for underprivileged and marginalized sections of society
- Develops and revises regulations and guidelines governing various aspects of higher education, such as distance education, deemed universities, private universities, etc
- Collects, analyzes, and maintains data related to higher education for policy formulation and decision-making purposes
- Central Universities: Established by an Act of Parliament and are under the purview of the central government.
- State Universities: Established by state governments within their respective states.
- Deemed Universities: Granted the status of "Deemed to be University" by the University Grants Commission (UGC)
- Many colleges are affiliated with universities and offer undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The degrees awarded by these colleges are conferred by the affiliated university
- Some colleges have been granted autonomy by the University Grants Commission or the respective university. These colleges have the authority to design their curriculum and conduct examinations, and they award degrees on their own
- Certain institutes, like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and others designated as Institutes of National Importance, have the authority to award degrees
- Institutions like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and others recognized by the Distance Education Bureau (DEB) offer distance education programs and award degrees
The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India has a rich historical background that traces back to the pre-independence era and has evolved significantly over time:
Pre-Independence Era:
- 1920s-1940s: Before India gained independence, the idea of a body to oversee and promote higher education emerged. The need for such an institution was discussed during the 1920s and 1930s.
Post-Independence Formation:
- 1947: After India gained independence in 1947, discussions intensified regarding the establishment of a commission to oversee higher education and allocate funds to universities and colleges.
- 1950: The UGC was initially set up as an ad-hoc committee to oversee the allocation of grants to universities and colleges.
- 1956: The University Grants Commission Act was passed on December 28, 1956, establishing the UGC as a statutory body. This formalized its role in overseeing and promoting higher education.
Evolution and Functions:
- Early Years: Initially, the UGC focused on disbursing grants and fostering the development of universities and colleges.
- Expanding Role: Over time, the UGC's role expanded to encompass setting academic standards, promoting research, and advising the government on higher education policies.
- Regulatory Functions: It started playing a more regulatory role by formulating guidelines and regulations for various aspects of higher education.
Milestones and Amendments:
- 1960s-1970s: The UGC underwent amendments to accommodate changes in the higher education landscape and to enhance its effectiveness.
- Subsequent Decades: The UGC continued to evolve, adapting to the changing needs of higher education, introducing reforms, and addressing emerging challenges.
SMART LANDER FOR INVESTIGATING MOON (SLIM)
Recently, Japan's moon lander, SLIM, successfully entered lunar orbit, after a months-long journey. It's now gearing up for a landing attempt on January 19th. If successful, Japan will join the elite club of nations (US, USSR, China, and India) that have soft-landed robotic craft on the moon. More significantly, the outcome of SLIM's mission will have a direct impact on India's upcoming Chandrayaan-4 mission.
- SLIM, the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon, is a spacecraft developed and launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on September 7, 2023, from the Tanegashima spaceport.
- Weighing only 590 kg at launch, SLIM is considerably lighter than Chandrayaan-3, which weighed 3,900 kg at launch, albeit with a more extensive suite of instruments.
- It was launched alongside XRISM, a next-generation X-ray space telescope, using an H-2A rocket. Delays in the readiness of XRISM led to SLIM's launch date being shifted from 2021 to 2023.
- SLIM successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the moon, with an apogee (farthest point) of 4,000 km and perigee (closest point) of 600 km above the lunar surface.
- Noteworthy is the timing of SLIM's launch, occurring just two weeks after the successful surface component of India's Chandrayaan-3 mission and the failure of Russia's Luna 25 spacecraft.
- This mission also represents Japan's second attempt this year to soft-land on the moon, following the unfortunate crash of the HAKUTO-R M1 lander, developed by Japanese company ispace, in late April due to engine shutdown issues during landing.
3. SLIM's Journey to the Moon
SLIM's distinct path to the moon reflects its lighter design, necessitating a more fuel-efficient approach compared to Chandrayaan-3. While Chandrayaan-3, with its propulsion module weighing 2.1 tonnes, followed a rapid Hohmann transfer orbit, SLIM's four-month journey was dictated by the principles of weak-stability boundary theory.
- SLIM's reduced weight is attributed to carrying less fuel. Chandrayaan-3, with its 3.9-tonne mass, was propelled by a 2.1-tonne propulsion module. Launched on July 14, Chandrayaan-3 reached the moon in less than a month through the Hohmann transfer orbit, a more direct route.
- SLIM's journey involved multiple orbits around Earth, strategically building kinetic energy during each swing. This fuel-thrifty approach allowed SLIM to gradually accelerate before ascending towards the moon's orbit. This trajectory, rooted in weak-stability boundary theory, contributed to the extended travel time of four months.
- Once in Earth's orbit, SLIM utilized a series of swings around the planet to accumulate kinetic energy. This gradual acceleration prepared the spacecraft for the subsequent trajectory towards the moon.
- Unlike Chandrayaan-3, which applied brakes to slow down and be captured by the moon's gravity, SLIM adopted a different strategy. As SLIM approached the moon, it allowed itself to be deflected in the moon's direction, even shooting past lunar orbit and deeper into space. This deflection was orchestrated by the combined gravitational forces of the Earth and the Moon.
- The deflection technique employed by SLIM echoes principles established in the late 1980s during the JAXA mission 'Hiten,' showcasing the continuity of scientific approaches in space exploration.
4. SLIM's Lunar Mission Objectives
- After following a larger, more extended orbit, SLIM positioned itself strategically for a lunar encounter in December. This approach, sacrificing time for fuel efficiency, culminated in orbital capture on Christmas Day.
- By adopting a more loopy path, SLIM maximized fuel efficiency, a critical factor in its mission design.
- SLIM's standout feature is its moniker as the "moon sniper," earned through its ambitious objective on January 19. It aims to achieve a remarkable feat by attempting to soft-land within an exceptionally tight tolerance of 100 meters from its chosen landing site.
- In comparison to historical moon-landing missions, SLIM's precision goal is unprecedented. While the Chandrayaan-3 Vikram lander targeted an elliptical area of 4 km x 2.5 km, SLIM aims to set a new record with the smallest-ever area tolerance for a soft landing on the moon.
- SLIM's chosen landing site is near the Shioli Crater, located at 13.3º S and 25.2º E. To guide its descent, SLIM will leverage data from JAXA's SELENE orbiter, a precursor mission that concluded in 2009.
- SLIM's attempt to soft-land with a precision of 100 meters surpasses previous achievements. Notably, China's Chang'e 3 spacecraft held the record for the most precise moon landing, touching down 89 meters away from its designated spot in the Mare Imbrium plain in 2013.
- SLIM's lower mass, excluding fuel at only 120 kg, enhances its manoeuvrability during the descent. Its compact size serves as a testament to its economical design, being a critical factor in achieving the ambitious landing precision.
- Before landing, SLIM will deploy two small rovers, Lunar Excursion Vehicles (LEV)-1 and Lunar Excursion Vehicles (LEV)-2, to explore the lunar surface near the landing point. These rovers will collect data on temperature, and radiation, and aim to study the moon's mantle, contributing valuable insights to lunar exploration.
5. SLIM's Impact on Chandrayaan-4: Advancing Lunar Exploration
- Scientists are particularly intrigued by the moon's South Pole region due to permanently shadowed craters containing water ice. This area, shielded from sunlight and diurnal temperature variations, holds the potential for water extraction. Chandrayaan-4, as part of its Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX) mission, aims to delve deeper into this region.
- The successful soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 marked the conclusion of the second phase of India's lunar exploration program. The subsequent mission, Chandrayaan-4, represents the first endeavour of the program's third phase, focusing on the Lunar Polar Exploration.
- LUPEX is envisioned as a collaborative effort between India and Japan, with JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) having approved the mission. The launch is anticipated in 2026, with Japan providing the launch vehicle and lunar rover, while India contributes the lander module.
- Chandrayaan-4 will target an area even closer to the moon's South Pole than Chandrayaan-3, offering the potential for groundbreaking discoveries. The challenging terrain characterized by rocky surfaces, numerous craters, and steep slopes demands advanced landing technologies.
- The technologies tested by JAXA through SLIM, particularly the feature-matching algorithm and navigation systems, will be pivotal for Chandrayaan-4's success in navigating the intricate lunar terrain. SLIM's achievements and learnings will contribute to refining the capabilities required for precise landings.
- Near the moon's poles, identifying suitable landing spots for larger modules or rovers is challenging. With rocky and crater-filled terrains, the downrange and cross-range limits for landing will be more restrictive. Chandrayaan-4 will need to land as close as possible to the designated site, emphasizing the importance of advanced landing capabilities.
- The feature-matching algorithm and navigation systems tested by SLIM will play a crucial role in overcoming the challenges posed by the rocky lunar terrain. These technologies will be essential for Chandrayaan-4 to land with precision and efficiency in the targeted region near the moon's South Pole.
- While JAXA is expected to provide the launch vehicle and lunar rover, India will contribute the lander module for Chandrayaan-4. The exact landing site is yet to be determined, but it is anticipated to be closer to the South Pole than the previous Vikram lander, which landed 600 km away.
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For Prelims: SLIM, JAXA, ISRO, Chandrayaan, LUPEX, Lunar Excursion Vehicles, HAKUTO-R M1
For Mains:
1. Discuss the advantages and limitations of SLIM's fuel-efficient trajectory compared to the Hohmann transfer orbit used by Chandrayaan-3. How can this technology be adapted for future space missions? (250 Words)
2. Discuss the potential economic benefits of lunar resource utilization and its implications for spacefaring nations. How can these resources be used for sustainable development and scientific advancement? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of space technology, what is "Bhuvan", recently in the news? (UPSC 2010)
A. A mini satellite, launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
B. The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II
C. A geoportal of ISRO with 3 D imaging capabilities of India
D. A space telescope developed by India
2. What will be India's second moon mission by ISRO? (Maharashtra Talathi 2019) A. Chandrayaan 1 B. Chandrayaan 1.A C. Chandrayaan 2 D. Chandrayaan 3
3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019) A. Maharashtra B. Rajasthan C. Kerala D. Andhra Pradesh
4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true? (CTET 2022)
A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon
B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon.
E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth
1. A, B 2. B, C 3. C, D 4. A, E
5. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020) A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research
6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020) A. Voyager-2 B. New Horizons C. LISA Pathfinder D. Evolved LISA Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-1, 5-A, 6-D Mains 1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically (UPSC GS3, 2017) 2.Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC GS3, 2016) |
JN.1
With cases of the Covid-19 sub-variant JN.1 on the rise across several countries, the World Health Organization (WHO) on Tuesday designated it as a “variant of interest” separate from its ancestor BA.2.86 that is commonly referred to as Pirola.
The Union health ministry has written to states and Union Territories, asking them to monitor cases of influenza-like illnesses, conduct adequate testing, and send all positive samples for whole genome sequencing.
Karnataka has asked senior citizens to mask up. State health minister Dinesh Gundu Rao Monday said an order would be issued in this regard.
Another 15 cases of the JN.1 variant were detected in samples from Goa, according to officials familiar with the matter.
2. Key takeaways
- The JN.1 sub-variant, which stems from the BA.2.86 variant (known as Pirola), isn't entirely new. It was first identified in the US in September, with its global presence dating back to January this year.
- JN.1 differs from Pirola by having just one extra mutation on the spike protein. Pirola, in contrast, carries over 30 mutations on this protein.
- The significance lies in spike protein mutations as they facilitate the virus's entry into human cells by binding to receptors. Researchers have kept a close eye on JN.1 due to these spike protein alterations within Pirola
Could it trigger a surge in cases or more severe symptoms?
- So far, there's no indication that JN.1 leads to exacerbated symptoms or spreads faster than the already circulating variants.
- Initially, there were worries that Pirola's numerous mutations might enable it to evade the immune response more readily and propagate swiftly. However, that scenario hasn't materialized.
- Notably, a WHO assessment on COVID-19 Vaccine Composition found that both Pirola and JN.1 were effectively neutralized by serum from individuals who had been infected and vaccinated.
- Pirola and JN.1 are classified as Variants of Interest (VOI) but haven't been labeled as Variants of Concern (VOC).
Here's what distinguishes VOI and VOC:
- VOI refers to variants less neutralized by antibodies from infection or vaccination in lab settings and have potential to spread.
- A variant earns VOI status if it displays a growth advantage over other variants, showing increased proportions alongside rising case numbers.
- Additionally, it could be designated as VOI if it's predicted or confirmed to alter characteristics like transmissibility, virulence, antibody evasion, or susceptibility to therapies and diagnostics.
- Once recognized as VOI, the WHO monitors its global spread, assesses its public health risk, and encourages sharing isolates. Member states are required to report VOI cases, monitor, and conduct field investigations to understand the variant's potential impact.
- On the other hand, VOC are variants that drive heightened transmission, severe disease leading to hospitalization, and diminished vaccine effectiveness.
- Pirola and its close relative JN.1 are causing a noticeable uptick in global cases. Their presence has been identified in various locations such as the USA, several European nations, Singapore, and China.
- According to the WHO, Pirola and its offspring made up 17% of the Sars-CoV-2 sequences uploaded to the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) database.
- By early December, over half of these sequences were attributed to JN.1. In the United States, JN.1 comprised between 15% and 29% of the circulating Covid-19 variants.
- During the week of December 4 to 10, Singapore recorded an estimated 56,043 cases and observed a rise in hospitalizations, particularly among individuals aged 60 and above
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UPSC Practice Question
1.Concerning ‘Varient of Interest’ (VOI), seen in the news due to the new Covid-19 sub-variant, consider the following statements: 1. A variant is designated as VOI by WHO if it shows a growth advantage over other circulating variants — meaning its proportion increases along with any increase in the total number of cases. 2. A variant can be designated as VOI if it is predicted to or known to change characteristics such as transmissibility, virulence, antibody evasion, or susceptibility to therapies and diagnostics. 3. Once designated as VOI, the WHO monitors, tracks its global spread and the body also keeps assessing its public health risk and facilitates the sharing of isolates. Which of the above statement/s is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) |
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:
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Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.
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Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.
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Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).
3. Measuring GDP
GDP can be measured in three different ways:
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Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.
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Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.
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GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.
The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.
Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy
4. Gross Value Added (GVA)
Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.
GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:
GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption
Where:
- Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
- Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:
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Definition and Scope:
- GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
- GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.
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Foreign Income and Payments:
- GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
- GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.
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Net Factor Income from Abroad:
- GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
- GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.
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Foreign Direct Investment:
- GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
- GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.
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Measurement Approach:
- GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
- GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.
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For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP
For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth
2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth
3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b)
2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)
Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021) |
CURRENT ACCOUNT DEFICIT
1. Context
2. What is a Current Account Deficit (CAD)?
- The Current Account Deficit (CAD) refers to a situation where a country's total imports of goods, services, investment incomes, and unilateral transfers exceed its total exports. It represents a deficit or negative balance in the country's current account, which is a component of its balance of payments.
- CAD reflects a nation's dependence on foreign sources to finance its consumption and investment. A persistent deficit in the current account might indicate that a country is spending more on foreign goods and services than it is earning, leading to increased borrowing from other countries to cover the shortfall.
- This deficit is not necessarily negative on its own, as it can be financed by foreign investments or borrowing. However, if it becomes unsustainable or grows excessively large, it could pose risks to the country's economic stability, currency value, and overall financial health. Governments often monitor and aim to manage their current account deficits to maintain a healthy balance in their economy.
3. The significance of CAD
- When the value of the goods and services that a country imports exceed the value of the products it exports, it is called the current account deficit.
- CAD and the fiscal deficit together make up the twin deficits the enemies of the stock market and investors.
- If the current account of the country's trade and transactions with other countries show a surplus, that indicates money is flowing into the country, boosting the foreign exchange reserves and the value of the rupee against the dollar.
- These are factors that will have ramifications on the economy and the stock markets as well as on returns on investments by people.
4. RBI on CAD
- According to the RBI, the CAD which was at $36.4 billion for the quarter ending September 2022, is expected to moderate in the second half of 2022-23 and remain eminently manageable and within the parameters of viability.
- CAD for the first half of 2022-23 stood at 3.3. per cent of the GDP.
- The situation has shown improvement in Q3: 2022-23 as imports moderated in the wake of lower commodity prices, resulting in the narrowing of the merchandise trade deficit.
5. Narrowed Trade deficit
- January trade deficit narrowed to $17.7 billion, led by a sharp fall in imports, while exports fell by a smaller amount.
- The sharp drop in imports was due to non-oil imports falling, mainly due to a price impact (softening in coal prices from mid-December), likely softening in domestic demand post the festival season (Such as lower imports of transport equipment) and the seasonal impact of the Chinese New Year holidays.
- On the other hand, after the Rs 26, 000 crore sell-off by foreign portfolio investors in January, FPI outflows have come down to Rs 4, 400 crores in February so far.
- Workers' remittances went up to $ 30 billion in the April-September 2022 period from $ 25. 48 billion in the same period a year ago.
- At the same time, gold imports fell to $20 billion from $ 23.9 billion a year ago.
6. Improvement of Capital flow
- While there is a perception in the markets that capital flows could come under some pressure with China's reopening and any deviations in monetary policy expectations, inflows are expected to increase the economy on the whole as foreign investors are unlikely to keep away from India, which is expected to witness one of the highest growth rates among large economies.
- At a time when the economies of many developed markets are expected to take a hit, the RBI has projected the GDP growth for the next fiscal (FY2024) at 6.4 per cent and the Union Budget has indicated a capital expenditure of Rs 10 lakh crore (over $120 billion).
- Moreover, with the rise in interest rates in India after the RBI hiked the repo rate by 250 basis points to 6.50 per cent, non-resident Indian deposits, remittances and FPI investment in debt are expected to rise further.
- NRI deposits had increased by $3.62 billion to $ 134.49 billion in the April-November period of 2022.
- Capital flow into India came under pressure in 2022 following the sharp rise in interest rates in the US.
- While FPIs pulled out Rs 121, 439 crores in 2022, even in the first six weeks of 2023, the FPI flow has been negative and the equity markets have witnessed a net outflow of Rs 32, 887 crores till February 16.
- While the flow of capital will depend upon the interest rate movement and currency movements vis-a-vis the US dollar, there is optimism among global investors about India.
7. Moderate CAD impact on Market
- While rising CAD raises concerns among investors as it hurts the currency and thereby the inflow of funds into the markets a notable decline in CAD in January has improved market sentiments.
- The benchmark Sensex at BSE rose 407 points intraday on Thursday before closing at 61, 319 with a gain of 44 points or 0.07 per cent.
- CAD is very important for the currency and the value of an economy hinges a lot on the value of its currency thereby, it also supports the equity markets by keeping the fund flow intact.
- While the numbers for January have come good, experts say this needs to be sustained.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Current Account Deficit, RBI, Union Budget, GDP, Capital flow,
For Mains:
1. What is Current Account Deficit? Discuss its significance and impact on the Indian market (250 Words)
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Source: The Indian Express
