The University Grants Commission (UGC) operates under statutory provisions outlined primarily in the University Grants Commission Act, 1956. Here are some of the key statutory provisions governing the UGC:

• University Grants Commission Act, 1956: This is the primary legislation that established the UGC. It defines the roles, functions, powers, and responsibilities of the Commission. It also outlines the composition of the UGC, appointment procedures, and its authority to allocate funds to universities and colleges.

• UGC (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2016: These regulations provide guidelines for institutions seeking the status of "Deemed to be University." They specify the criteria, application process, and conditions for granting this status.

• UGC (Minimum Standards of Instruction for the Grant of the First Degree through Non-formal/Distance Education) Regulations, 2017: These regulations specify the minimum standards for offering programs through distance education mode, ensuring quality education delivery.

• UGC (Open and Distance Learning) Regulations, 2017: These regulations govern the standards and norms for open and distance learning programs offered by universities and institutions in India.

• UGC (Establishment and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003: These regulations outline the norms and standards for the establishment and functioning of private universities, ensuring quality education.

• UGC (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal of Sexual Harassment of Women Employees and Students in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2015: These regulations mandate higher educational institutions to establish mechanisms for preventing and addressing sexual harassment.

• UGC (Promotion of Equity in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2012: These regulations aim to promote equity in higher education, focusing on providing opportunities to disadvantaged sections of society.

• Central Universities: Established by an Act of Parliament and are under the purview of the central government.
• State Universities: Established by state governments within their respective states.
• Deemed Universities: Granted the status of "Deemed to be University" by the University Grants Commission (UGC)
• Many colleges are affiliated with universities and offer undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The degrees awarded by these colleges are conferred by the affiliated university
• Some colleges have been granted autonomy by the University Grants Commission or the respective university. These colleges have the authority to design their curriculum and conduct examinations, and they award degrees on their own
• Certain institutes, like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and others designated as Institutes of National Importance, have the authority to award degrees
• Institutions like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and others recognized by the Distance Education Bureau (DEB) offer distance education programs and award degrees

The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India has a rich historical background that traces back to the pre-independence era and has evolved significantly over time:

Pre-Independence Era:

• 1920s-1940s: Before India gained independence, the idea of a body to oversee and promote higher education emerged. The need for such an institution was discussed during the 1920s and 1930s.

Post-Independence Formation:

• 1947: After India gained independence in 1947, discussions intensified regarding the establishment of a commission to oversee higher education and allocate funds to universities and colleges.
• 1950: The UGC was initially set up as an ad-hoc committee to oversee the allocation of grants to universities and colleges.
• 1956: The University Grants Commission Act was passed on December 28, 1956, establishing the UGC as a statutory body. This formalized its role in overseeing and promoting higher education.

Evolution and Functions:

• Early Years: Initially, the UGC focused on disbursing grants and fostering the development of universities and colleges.
• Expanding Role: Over time, the UGC's role expanded to encompass setting academic standards, promoting research, and advising the government on higher education policies.
• Regulatory Functions: It started playing a more regulatory role by formulating guidelines and regulations for various aspects of higher education.

Milestones and Amendments:

• 1960s-1970s: The UGC underwent amendments to accommodate changes in the higher education landscape and to enhance its effectiveness.
• Subsequent Decades: The UGC continued to evolve, adapting to the changing needs of higher education, introducing reforms, and addressing emerging challenges.

CENSUS

1. Context

2. History of Census

• India had conducted the Census every 10 years since 1881, but in 2020, the decennial exercise for Census 2021 had to be postponed due to the pandemic.
• Though the government has not announced fresh dates for the Census, the groundwork is being laid and details are emerging about some of the features.
• It will be the first digital Census allowing citizens to "self-enumerate". The NPR (National Population Register) has been made compulsory for citizens who want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators.
• For this, the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) has designed a "self-enumeration, Aadhaar or mobile number will be mandatorily collected.

3. Status of the Census exercise

• A January 2 notification extending the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries in States until June 30 has ruled out the exercise at least till September.
• As preparation and training take at least three months, the Census will have to be pushed to next year.
• Around 30 lakh government officials will be assigned as enumerators and each will have the task to collect the details of 650-800 people through both online and offline modes, covering an estimated population of 135 crore people.
• The Lok Sabha election is due in April-May 2024 and it is unlikely that the Census will be carried out before that since the same workforce will be dedicated to the elections.
• The completion of both phases of the Census will take at least 11 months, even if done at an accelerated pace from October 1.

4. Holding up the Census

• One reason which is holding up the exercise is the amendments proposed to the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969.
• The government wants to have a centralised register of births and deaths that can be used to update the population register, electoral register, Aadhaar, ration card, passport and driving license databases.
• The centrally stored data will be updated in real-time without a human interface leading to addition and deletion from electoral rolls when an individual turns 18 and after an individual's death respectively.
• A Bill to link the births and deaths registered with the population register and others are expected to be tabled in the next session of Parliament.

5.  NPR

• The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
• Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
• According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
• Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
•  Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
• In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
• There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
• Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.

5.1. The current status of NPR

• The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
• It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
• In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
• The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
• For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
• The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
• The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
• The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
• Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
• The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
• The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
• The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.

6. Expected expenditure for Census

• The initial draft was prepared by the office of the Registrar General of India and circulated to key Ministries and the Prime Minister's Office called for the conduct of Census 2021 at a cost of ₹9, 275 crores and not the NPR.
• The draft Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) not was then revised and a financial provision of ₹4, 442.15 crores for updating the NPR was added on the directions of the MHA "subsequently".
• The proposal was cleared on August 16, 2019, and it received the  Union Cabinet's nod on December 24, 2019.
• It was decided that the enumerator engaged for Census would also collect details for NPR.
• The Covid-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and since then both exercises are on hold.
• Now, the NPR has been made compulsory if citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own.
• The deleted Handbook said that it is "mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR".
• Census is also mandatory and giving false information is a punishable offence.

PARIS AGREEMENT

1. Context

Earlier this month, the United States withdrew itself from over 60 major international organisations and agreements saying these no longer served American interests.

2. What is Paris Agreement?

• Paris Agreement is a multinational agreement that was signed as part of the UNFCCC with the intention of reducing and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
• 196 nations ratified the climate change agreement at the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris in December 2015. It is an international agreement that is binding on all parties involved.
• Achieving the long-term temperature goal was the purpose of the Paris Climate Accord. To attain a world without greenhouse gas emissions by the middle of the century, nations strive to peak global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
• The Paris Climate Accord's major objective is to keep global warming well below 2° Celsius and ideally below 1.5° Celsius in comparison to pre-industrial levels.
• The Paris Agreement is a watershed moment in the multilateral climate change process because it brings all nations together for the first time in a binding agreement to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

3. COP21

• To keep the rise in the average world temperature to well under 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To continue making efforts to keep global warming to 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels, knowing that doing so would greatly lessen the dangers and effects of climate change.
• The Agreement also mentions achieving the global peaking of emissions by the middle of the century while taking into account the fact that developing nation Parties will have a longer peaking period.

4. What are NDCs

• At the Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which took place in Paris in December 2015, nations from all over the world pledged to establish a new global climate agreement by that time.
• In advance of a new international agreement, nations have committed to publicly state their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions or the climate activities they plan to take after 2020.
• The 2015 agreement's ambitious goals and whether the world is put on a course toward a low-carbon, climate-resilient future will be largely determined by the INDCs.
• The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of India has also been submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• Countries communicate actions they will take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Paris Agreement's goals in their NDCs.
• Countries also communicate actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the effects of rising temperatures in their NDCs.

Image Source: The Hindu

5. Highlights of the report on the performance of the Paris Agreement

• After the signing of the Agreement, the last eight years (2015-2022) have consecutively been the warmest years on record globally.
• The situation could have been far worse if the La Nina weather event had not occurred in the past three years, which has a cooling effect on the weather system.
• Globally updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius have failed even to achieve a 2-degree Celsius target.
• The Paris Agreement has not been able to equitably phase out fossil fuels predominantly responsible for the climate crisis.
• Neither the NDCs nor the disaster risk reduction and climate risk management plans are in place to combat climate-induced extreme weather phenomena.

6. A series of climate records fell over in 2022, the report showed. 

• Global mean temperature rising: The global mean temperature in 2022 was 1.15°C, ranging from 1.02°C to 1.28°C above the 1850–1900 average. This was the highest on record for the past eight years. The value is about 0.2°C higher than the statistic before 2015. The pre-industrialisation era is considered a benchmark as there was no significant anthropogenic emission at the time.
• Record melting of Antarctica ice: Sea ice in Antarctica dropped to an all-time low, 1.92 million square kilometres, on February 25, 2022. This was almost a million sq km below the mean of the last three decades till 2020. 
• Greenhouse gases surged: The levels of three major greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — continued to increase in 2022. The data shows that growth rates of all three gases have increased around 20 per cent compared to 2011-15 levels.
• Sea level rise doubled: Global mean sea level continued to rise in 2022. It has doubled to 4.62 millimetres per year during 2013–2022 from 2.27 mm recorded in the first decade of the satellite record (1993–2002). The rate of increase quickened after 2015. Ocean heat content, which measures this gain in energy, reached a new observed record.
• Record thinning of glaciers: Long-term observational data is available for glaciers, which were found to have thinned over 1.3 metres between October 2021 and October 2022. The loss is much larger than before. The cumulative thickness loss since 1970 amounts to almost 30 metres.
• More than half of the oceans saw marine heatwaves in 2022:  Despite continuing La Nina conditions, 58 per cent of the ocean surface experienced at least one marine heatwave during 2022. 
• Heatwaves killed 15,000 in Europe: Record-breaking heatwaves affected China and Europe during the summer, with excess deaths associated with the heat in Europe exceeding 15000. Casualties were reported across Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Portugal.
• 1,600 suffered deaths from weather extremes in India: India suffered from significant flooding at various stages during monsoon, particularly in the northeast in June, with over 700 deaths reported from flooding and landslides and a further 900 from lightning.

For Prelims: Paris Agreement, Conference of the Parties (COP 21), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), UNFCCC, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). For Mains: 1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC 2021)

 

Previous year Question 1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017. 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility for global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries cope with climate change.   Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only B.  2 only C.  2 and 3 only D.  1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016) A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals Answer: B

Source: Down to Earth

 

 

EUROPEAN UNION (EU)

 

 

1. Context

AS New Delhi hosted leaders from the European Union on the occasion of India’s 77th Republic Day celebrations, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said a “successful India makes the world more stable, prosperous and secure”.

 

2. What is the European Union (EU)?

• The European Parliament (EP) represents the citizens of EU member states. Its main roles include negotiating EU laws with member state governments, which are represented by the European Council.

• The EP also has the authority to approve the EU budget, vote on international agreements, and decide on the enlargement of the bloc. Additionally, it can approve or reject the appointment of the European Commission president — currently Germany’s Ursula von der Leyen — and the commissioners.

• Unlike national parliaments, the EP does not have the right to propose laws; it can only negotiate those proposed by the executive European Commission.

• The EP consists of 720 Members (MEPs) who are elected every five years. These MEPs then elect their president for a term of two and a half years.

• In 21 member states, individuals aged 18 and above can vote.

• Citizens living in another EU country can choose to vote for candidates either from their home country or from their country of residence.

• In some member states, voters can only choose closed lists where they cannot change the order of preferred candidates, while in others, they can select individual candidates in a preferential system.

• All candidates must be EU citizens. Depending on the country, voters may choose from individual candidates or political parties’ delegates. Once elected, politicians from each nation join the European groups in the Parliament based on their political orientations. Elected individuals cannot hold positions in national governments or other political bodies such as the EU Commission

 

What are the member countries of the EU? Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden

 

 

3. History of EU

1945-1957: Post-War Integration Efforts

• 1945: After the devastation of World War II, European countries seek to ensure lasting peace and economic stability.
• 1951: The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) is established by the Treaty of Paris, signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. This organization aims to integrate the coal and steel industries of member countries, making war between them "materially impossible."

1957: The Treaties of Rome

• 1957: The Treaties of Rome are signed, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). The EEC aims to create a common market and a customs union among its members

960s-1980s: Growth and Challenges

• 1973: The first enlargement of the EEC occurs, with Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joining the Community.
• 1981: Greece becomes a member, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986.
• 1986: The Single European Act is signed, aiming to create a single market by 1992, ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.

1990s: Political and Economic Union

• 1992: The Maastricht Treaty is signed, formally establishing the European Union. The treaty introduces new forms of cooperation between governments, such as a common foreign and security policy, and lays the foundation for economic and monetary union, including the creation of a single currency.
• 1995: Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the EU.
• 1999: The euro is introduced as the single currency for 11 EU countries, with physical currency (banknotes and coins) entering circulation in 2002.

2000s: Major Enlargement and Institutional Reforms

• 2004: The EU undergoes its largest expansion, with ten new countries (Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) joining.
• 2007: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU.
• 2009: The Lisbon Treaty comes into force, reforming the EU's institutional structure and increasing its powers in areas such as justice, security, and foreign policy

2010s: Economic Crises and Brexit

• 2010: The eurozone faces a significant debt crisis, prompting reforms and financial support mechanisms to stabilize the economies of member states.
• 2013: Croatia becomes the EU's 28th member state.
• 2016: The United Kingdom votes to leave the EU in a referendum, leading to Brexit.
• 2020: The UK officially leaves the EU on January 31, 2020

4. What is the European Council?

 

The European Council is one of the principal institutions of the European Union (EU), playing a crucial role in shaping the EU's overall political direction and priorities.

 

Here are the key aspects of the European Council:

• The European Council comprises the heads of state or government of the EU member states, along with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy also participates
• The European Council meets at least four times a year, usually in Brussels, Belgium. Additionally, extraordinary meetings can be convened to address urgent issues
• The European Council sets the EU's general political agenda and provides strategic leadership on key issues facing the EU. While it does not legislate or adopt laws, its decisions and recommendations guide the work of other EU institutions
• The European Council operates on the basis of consensus, with decisions typically reached through discussions and negotiations among its members. However, unanimity is not always required for certain decisions, particularly in areas where EU treaties allow for qualified majority voting

5. What are the areas of cooperation between India and EU?

 

India and the European Union (EU) engage in cooperation across various sectors, reflecting their shared interests and objectives.

Some of the key areas of cooperation between India and the EU include:

• Trade and Investment: Both India and the EU are major trading partners. Efforts are underway to enhance bilateral trade relations through negotiations for a comprehensive free trade agreement known as the EU-India Broad-Based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA). Additionally, initiatives aim to promote investment flows between India and the EU.

• Political Dialogue and Strategic Partnership: India and the EU engage in regular political dialogues to discuss regional and global issues of mutual concern, including security, counter-terrorism, climate change, and sustainable development. They have established a strategic partnership framework to deepen cooperation in these areas.

• Research and Innovation: Collaboration in research and innovation is a growing area of cooperation between India and the EU. Joint research projects, technology partnerships, and academic exchanges are promoted to address common challenges and foster technological innovation.

• Education and Culture: India and the EU cooperate in the fields of education, culture, and people-to-people exchanges. Programs such as Erasmus+ facilitate student and academic mobility between India and EU member states, while cultural events and initiatives promote mutual understanding and appreciation.

• Energy and Climate Change: India and the EU collaborate on energy security, renewable energy, and climate change mitigation efforts. Dialogues and partnerships focus on promoting clean energy technologies, sustainable development, and the implementation of the Paris Agreement on climate change.

• Security and Counter-Terrorism: Cooperation in security and counter-terrorism is a priority for India and the EU. They exchange information, share best practices, and coordinate efforts to combat terrorism, cyber threats, and other transnational security challenges.

• Migration and Mobility: India and the EU engage in dialogue on migration and mobility issues, including legal migration, visa facilitation, and irregular migration management. Cooperation aims to promote safe, orderly, and regular migration flows while addressing challenges related to migration governance.

• Healthcare and Public Health: Collaboration in healthcare and public health is increasingly important, especially in areas such as pandemic preparedness, disease surveillance, and healthcare infrastructure development. India and the EU work together to strengthen health systems and respond to global health challenges.

 

 

For Prelims:  Current events of national and international importance For Mains: GS-II:GS-II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2023) The ‘Stability and Growth Pact’ of the European Union is a treaty that 1. limits the levels of the budgetary deficit of the countries of the European Union 2. makes the countries of the European Union to share their infrastructure facilitie 3. enables the countries of the European Union to share their technologie How many of the above statements are correct (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None  Answer (a)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

BALLISTIC MISSILE

 

 

 

1. Context

At the 77th Republic Day Parade on Kartavya Path, the highlight of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) display is the Long Range Anti-Ship Hypersonic Missile (LR-AShM), which it is showcasing for the first time.

 

 

2.What is ballistic missile?

 

• A ballistic missile is a guided missile that follows a specific trajectory, or flight path, influenced primarily by gravity. The term "ballistic" refers to the physics of motion under the influence of gravity, and ballistic missiles are designed to reach their target through a free-fall trajectory.
• These missiles are powered during the initial phase of their flight, called the boost phase, where rocket engines or other propulsion systems propel them into space or a high altitude. After reaching the peak of their trajectory, the warhead or payload separates from the missile body and follows a ballistic trajectory back to Earth, guided by gravity. The descent phase is typically unpowered, relying on the missile's momentum gained during the boost phase
• Ballistic missiles are often associated with military applications, including strategic nuclear missiles, but they can also be conventionally armed for various purposes such as precision strikes, deterrence, and other strategic objectives. The development and deployment of ballistic missiles have been significant factors in the field of arms control and international security

Ballistic missiles can be categorized based on their range and intended targets: Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs): Typically have a range of up to 1,000 kilometers. Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBMs): Have a range between 1,000 and 3,000 kilometers. Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs): Have a range between 3,000 and 5,500 kilometers. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs): Have a range greater than 5,500 kilometers, allowing them to cross continents.

 

 

3. What is the difference between a missile and a ballistic missile?

 

Missile	Ballistic Missile
A missile is a generic term for a guided projectile that is designed to be launched and directed toward a specific target	A ballistic missile is a specific subtype of missile that follows a particular trajectory, primarily influenced by gravity
Missiles can come in various types and may have different propulsion systems, guidance mechanisms, and intended purposes	Ballistic missiles are powered during the boost phase, where rocket engines or other propulsion systems propel them into space or a high altitude
Missiles can be categorized into different types, such as cruise missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, anti-ship missiles, and more	After reaching the peak of their trajectory, the warhead or payload separates from the missile body, and the payload follows a free-fall trajectory back to Earth, guided by gravity
Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a specific trajectory influenced by gravity, the term "missile" does not inherently imply a specific flight path; it simply refers to a guided projectile	The descent phase of a ballistic missile is typically unpowered, relying on the missile's momentum gained during the boost phase. Ballistic missiles are often associated with long-range and strategic capabilities, including nuclear and conventional warheads.
Examples: Tomahawk cruise missile, AIM-120 AMRAAM (air-to-air), etc.	Examples: Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM), etc.

 

 

4.Cruise Missiles and Ballistic Missiles-How Are They Different?

 

Cruise Missile	Ballistic Missile
Low-altitude, level flight path within the Earth's atmosphere	Specific trajectory influenced by gravity, with a boost and ballistic descent phase
Flies at low altitudes, just above the Earth's surface	Reaches high altitudes during the boost phase, followed by a descending trajectory
Typically powered by jet engines or sustained propulsion systems	Powered during the boost phase, unpowered descent phase relying on momentum
Uses onboard navigation systems, sensors, and GPS for precision	Guided during the boost phase; may have additional guidance for accuracy during descent.
Operates at lower altitudes for shorter to medium ranges	Can achieve high altitudes; designed for short, medium, intermediate, and long ranges
Often used for precision strikes against specific targets	Various purposes, including strategic nuclear deterrence, precision strikes, and more

 

 

5. What is the history of missile technology in India?

 

India's history of missile technology development is marked by significant achievements and milestones. The country has made substantial progress in the field of missiles for both civilian and military purposes. Here is an overview of the key developments in India's missile technology:

• 1960s - 1980s: Initial Developments:

  • India's missile program started in the 1960s with the establishment of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
  • In the 1970s, India began developing short-range surface-to-surface missiles (SSMs), such as the Prithvi series.

• 1983: Prithvi Missile Test:

  • India conducted its first successful test of the Prithvi missile, a short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), in 1983.
  • Prithvi was designed for battlefield use and later evolved into different variants with varying ranges.

• 1989: Agni Missile Program Begins:

  • The Agni missile program was initiated in the late 1980s to develop intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs).
  • Agni-I, with a range of around 700 km, was the first missile developed under this program.

• 1998: Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests:

  • India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998 at Pokhran, including the testing of nuclear-capable missiles like Agni-II and Prithvi.
  • These tests marked India's declaration of its nuclear capabilities.

• 2003: Agni-II and Agni-III Tests:

  • India successfully tested the Agni-II and Agni-III missiles with extended ranges.
  • Agni-II had a range of over 2,000 km, while Agni-III had a range exceeding 3,000 km.

• 2008: Operationalization of Agni-I and Agni-II:

  • Agni-I and Agni-II were officially inducted into the Indian Armed Forces, enhancing India's strategic capabilities.

• 2012: Agni-V Test:

  • India successfully tested the Agni-V, an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.
  • Agni-V marked a significant milestone in India's missile capabilities, providing a credible deterrent.

• 2019: ASAT Test - Mission Shakti:

  • India conducted an Anti-Satellite (ASAT) test, known as Mission Shakti, demonstrating its ability to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit.

 

6.What kind of missiles does India have?

 

India has developed and deployed a variety of missiles across different categories, including strategic missiles, tactical missiles, cruise missiles, and anti-ballistic missiles. Here are some of the key types of missiles in India's arsenal:

• Agni Series:

  • Agni-I: A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) with a range of around 700 km.
  • Agni-II: An intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) with a range of over 2,000 km.
  • Agni-III: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range exceeding 3,000 km.
  • Agni-IV: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with an extended range compared to Agni-III.
  • Agni-V: An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.

• Prithvi Series:

  • Prithvi-I: A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) with a range of around 150 km.
  • Prithvi-II: A tactical surface-to-surface missile with a range of around 350 km.
  • Prithvi-III: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of over 300 km.

• BrahMos Missile:

  • A supersonic cruise missile developed in collaboration with Russia, featuring both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities. It has a range of around 300 to 500 km.

• Nirbhay Cruise Missile:

  • A subsonic cruise missile designed for long-range land-attack missions. It is an all-weather, low-flying missile with a range of around 1,000 km.

• Akash Missile:

  • A medium-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) designed for air defense against aircraft and drones. It has a range of around 25 km.

• Barak Missile:

  • A medium-range surface-to-air missile designed for defense against aircraft, helicopters, and anti-ship missiles.

• Prahaar Missile:

  • A solid-fueled tactical ballistic missile designed for quick deployment with a range of around 150 km.

• Dhanush Missile:

  • A naval variant of the Prithvi missile, designed for ship-based deployment with a range of around 350 km.

• Nag Missile:

  • An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) designed for use by infantry and helicopter platforms.

• Sagarika Missile (K-15):

  • A submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) with a range of around 750 km.

• A-SAT Missile (Mission Shakti):

  • An anti-satellite missile system, showcasing India's capability to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit.

7.What about hypersonic technology?

 

 

Hypersonic technology involves vehicles and systems that can travel at speeds significantly faster than the speed of sound, typically exceeding Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or approximately 6,174 kilometers per hour (3,836 miles per hour). These hypersonic speeds present unique challenges and advantages in terms of military applications, space exploration, and transportation. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, India has also been actively working on developing hypersonic technology. Here are some key points related to India's efforts in hypersonic technology:

• Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV):

  • India has been working on the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV), a project aimed at developing and testing indigenous hypersonic technology.
  • HSTDV is designed to operate at hypersonic speeds and serve as a testbed for various technologies associated with hypersonic flight.

• Successful Test Flights:

  • India conducted successful test flights of the HSTDV. In September 2020, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) announced that the HSTDV had completed its first successful flight.
  • During the test, the HSTDV demonstrated sustained flight at hypersonic speeds for a certain duration.

• Applications:

  • Hypersonic technology has potential applications in both military and civilian domains. In the military context, hypersonic missiles and vehicles can provide advantages in terms of rapid response, increased maneuverability, and the ability to penetrate advanced defense systems.
  • Civilian applications may include high-speed transportation and space exploration, leveraging the capability to reach orbit or travel between distant locations in a fraction of the time compared to conventional methods.

• International Context:

  • Hypersonic technology has gained global attention, with several countries investing in research and development to harness its strategic and technological advantages.
  • The United States, Russia, China, and other technologically advanced nations are also actively pursuing hypersonic capabilities

 

8.Way Forward

 

The acquisition of MIRV technology by India was keenly awaited after China developed it in the last decade. With Pakistan also claiming to have tested a missile with this technology, integrating this in Agni missiles had become an imperative. The next generation Agni-6 missile, currently under development, is also expected to be equipped with MIRV

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)   1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only B.2 only C.Both 1 and 2 D.Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

Source: Indianexpress

 

NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION (NHRC)

 

 

1. Context

 

NHRC, India's Core Group on Disabilities deliberates upon ‘Human rights violations emerging from re-verification and re-assessment of certificates of government employees with disabilities’

 

2. What is the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)?

 

• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body established in India in 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
• It serves as an autonomous public institution tasked with the protection and promotion of human rights across the country.
• The NHRC investigates complaints of human rights violations, conducts inquiries, and recommends remedial action to the government.
• It also plays a role in promoting awareness of human rights and providing education on related issues.
• The commission consists of a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India, and it operates at both the central and state levels

3. History of NHRC

 

• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established in India on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
• This Act was enacted to fulfill the obligations India undertook by becoming a signatory to the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, which called for the establishment of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights.
• The NHRC was founded with the aim of addressing human rights violations and promoting awareness and respect for human rights across the country. It operates as an autonomous body, independent of the government, to ensure impartiality and effectiveness in its functioning.
• Since its inception, the NHRC has played a crucial role in investigating complaints of human rights violations, conducting inquiries, and making recommendations to the government for remedial action. It also engages in advocacy, education, and awareness programs to promote a culture of human rights in India.
• Over the years, the NHRC has evolved and expanded its scope to address various human rights issues, including those related to civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. It operates at both the central and state levels, with a chairperson and members appointed by the President of India.
• The NHRC's history is marked by its efforts to uphold the principles of justice, equality, and dignity enshrined in the Indian Constitution and international human rights instruments

4. NHRC Composition 

The composition of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) includes a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India. According to the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, the NHRC consists of:

• Chairperson: The chairperson is appointed by the President of India and must be a retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or a serving or retired Judge of the Supreme Court.

• Members: The NHRC can have up to four members, including a member who is or has been a Judge of the Supreme Court, a member who is or has been the Chief Justice of a High Court, and two other members who have knowledge or practical experience in matters relating to human rights.

These appointments aim to ensure the independence, expertise, and credibility of the NHRC in addressing human rights issues effectively. The members serve fixed terms as specified by the Act, and they collectively contribute to the commission's efforts to protect and promote human rights across the country

5.Appointment of NHRC Members

 

The appointment of members to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) follows a process outlined in the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. Here's an overview of the appointment procedure:

• Selection Committee: A Selection Committee is constituted to recommend candidates for appointment as Chairperson and members of the NHRC. The Selection Committee is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and includes the following members:

  • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the Deputy Speaker, in case the Speaker is unable to attend.
  • The Minister in charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Government of India.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) in the absence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha

6.Functions & Powers of NHRC

 

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is empowered with various functions and powers to protect and promote human rights across the country.

 

Here are some of its key functions and powers:

• The NHRC is authorized to inquire into complaints of human rights violations received from individuals or groups. It can investigate violations committed by public servants or by any authority or person acting under the government's authority
• The Commission has the power to monitor human rights violations, including through suo moto action, where it can initiate an inquiry based on media reports, complaints, or its own knowledge
• Following investigations or inquiries, the NHRC can make recommendations to the concerned authorities for remedial action, prosecution, or compensation to victims of human rights violations
• The NHRC engages in activities to raise awareness about human rights issues through seminars, workshops, publications, and other educational programs
• It advises the government on policies and measures to promote and protect human rights effectively
• The NHRC can intervene in court proceedings related to human rights violations, either as a party or as amicus curiae (friend of the court)
• The Commission conducts research and studies on human rights issues to better understand the challenges and formulate appropriate responses
• Based on its findings and experiences, the NHRC can recommend legislative reforms to strengthen human rights protection in the country
• The NHRC collaborates with international human rights organizations and participates in international forums to promote human rights globally
• The NHRC has the authority to visit and monitor places of detention, such as prisons and juvenile homes, to ensure that inmates' human rights are respected

 

7. Limitations of NHRC 

 

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India plays a significant role in protecting and promoting human rights, it also faces several limitations, including:

 

• The NHRC lacks direct enforcement authority. It can investigate human rights violations, make recommendations, and issue guidelines, but it cannot enforce its decisions or ensure their implementation. Its recommendations are non-binding, and compliance by government agencies or other authorities is voluntary.
• The process of investigation and resolution of complaints by the NHRC can be lengthy and time-consuming, leading to delays in providing justice to victims of human rights violations. This delay can undermine the effectiveness of the NHRC in addressing urgent and serious violations
• The NHRC operates with limited resources, including budgetary allocations and staffing. This constraint can affect its capacity to handle a large number of complaints effectively and conduct thorough investigations into human rights violations
• The NHRC's jurisdiction is limited to investigating human rights violations committed by public servants or authorities acting under the government's authority. It may not have jurisdiction over violations by non-state actors or in certain areas like the armed forces, where separate mechanisms exist
• There have been instances where political pressures or interference have affected the independence and impartiality of the NHRC. Political influence can hinder its ability to address human rights violations objectively and without bias
• Many people, especially in rural areas and marginalized communities, may not be aware of the NHRC's existence or how to access its services. This lack of awareness and accessibility can prevent victims of human rights violations from seeking redress through the commission
• Even when the NHRC makes recommendations for remedial action or compensation, there may be instances where these recommendations are not implemented fully or effectively by the concerned authorities

 

 

For Prelims: National Human Rights Commission For Mains: Emerging Human Rights Challenges, Role and Functions of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Other than the Fundamental Rights, which of the following parts of the Constitution of India reflect/reflects the principles and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)? (UPSC CSE 2020) Preamble Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Duties Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 only  (c) 1 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d) 2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2011) Right to education Right to equal access to public service Right to food. Which of the above is/are Human Right/Human Rights under “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only  (c) 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d)   1.Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing theirstructural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2021)

Source: The Hindu