URBAN LOCAL BODIES
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India are institutions of local self-government that are responsible for the administration of urban areas. These bodies play a crucial role in local governance and are instrumental in the development and management of cities and towns.
The Evolution of Urban Local Bodies in India- Ancient Roots: The seeds of ULBs were sown in India's ancient past. Cities like Pataliputra and Mohenjo-daro thrived under councils or committees of citizens who oversaw public order, trade, and essential services like water and sanitation. These early forms of local governance laid the foundation for future ULBs.
- Colonial Legacy: The British Raj brought a formal system of local self-government to India, with elected municipal councils established in major cities. Madras (now Chennai) became the first with its municipal corporation in 1688. While this system offered a framework, it often lacked autonomy and true democratic representation.
- Post-Independence Evolution: After India's independence, the ULB system continued, but with significant modifications. The Constitution, through the 74th Amendment in 1992, cemented their status as a distinct tier of government, empowering them with greater autonomy and mandating their establishment through state-specific laws.
- Modern-Day ULBs: Today, ULBs play a multifaceted role in urban India. Their functions encompass crucial areas like urban planning and development, waste management, ensuring clean water supply, and managing efficient transportation systems. This diverse portfolio underscores the importance of ULBs in driving sustainable urban growth and enhancing citizen well-being.
The structure of ULBs
The structure of ULBs may vary across states, but they generally fall into three main categories:
- Municipal Corporation: Municipal Corporations are established in larger urban areas. They have a mayor-council form of governance. The mayor is the elected head of the corporation, and the council consists of elected members representing different wards. Municipal Corporations have a wide range of functions, including urban planning, public health, water supply, waste management, education, and infrastructure development.
- Municipal Council: Municipal Councils are established in smaller urban areas. They have elected members, including a chairperson. The structure may vary, with some councils having a municipal commissioner as an executive head. Municipal Councils perform functions similar to Municipal Corporations but are tailored to the scale and needs of smaller urban areas.
- Nagar Panchayat: Nagar Panchayats are established for transitional areas, emerging towns, or areas in transition from rural to urban. They have elected members and a chairperson. Nagar Panchayats focus on basic civic amenities and services, and their functions may include sanitation, water supply, and street lighting.
3. Constitutional and Legal Provisions Governing Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
Constitution of India: Part IXA and 12th Schedule
- Article 243-P: Deals with the composition of municipalities at the district and metropolitan levels.
- Article 243-Q: Addresses the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in municipalities.
- Article 243-R: Specifies the duration of municipalities.
- Article 243-S: Discusses the dissolution of municipalities.
- Article 243-T: Outlines the powers, authority, and responsibilities of municipalities.
- Article 243-U: Enlists the functions that municipalities are authorized to perform.
- Article 243-V: Pertains to the constitution of state finance commissions responsible for reviewing the financial position of municipalities.
State Municipal Acts: Each state in India has its own Municipal Act, providing a comprehensive legal framework for the functioning of ULBs within that state. These acts define the structure, composition, powers, functions, administration, and financing mechanisms of ULBs.
The Metro Railways (Construction of Works) Act, 1978: This Act addresses the construction and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities across India. It establishes provisions for the creation of a Metro Railways Administration tasked with overseeing the construction and operation of these transit systems.
4. Functions of Urban Local Bodies in India
Basic Amenities and Services
- Water Supply and Sanitation: Ensuring access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities is a top priority for ULBs. They handle water treatment and distribution, sewerage systems, drainage, and waste management.
- Public Health: ULBs are responsible for maintaining public health standards through initiatives like immunization programs, healthcare infrastructure development, and disease prevention measures.
- Street Lighting and Maintenance: ULBs ensure proper lighting and cleanliness of streets, roads, and public spaces for safety and aesthetics.
- Public Transportation: ULBs may manage public bus systems, rickshaws, and other forms of local transport to provide efficient and affordable mobility options.
Urban Planning and Development
- Land Use Planning: ULBs prepare and implement master plans for urban development, including zoning regulations, land use allocation, and infrastructure development plans.
- Building Permits and Construction: ULBs grant building permits, regulate construction activities, and ensure adherence to building codes for safe and sustainable urban development.
- Parks and Recreation: ULBs create and maintain parks, gardens, playgrounds, and other recreational spaces for the well-being of citizens.
- Slum Improvement and Redevelopment: ULBs address challenges like slums and urban poverty through improvement programs, infrastructure upgrades, and relocation projects.
Social Welfare and Education
- Primary Education: ULBs may manage primary schools, libraries, and other educational facilities within their jurisdiction.
- Social Welfare Programs: ULBs implement government programs for poverty alleviation, social welfare schemes for marginalized groups, and support for vulnerable populations.
- Community Development: ULBs promote community engagement through initiatives like cultural events, sports activities, and citizen participation programs.
- Disaster Management: ULBs prepare for and respond to natural disasters and emergencies, ensuring public safety and minimizing damage.
Financial Management and Revenue Generation
- Local Taxes and Fees: ULBs levy property taxes, user charges for services like water and sanitation, and other fees to generate revenue for their operations.
- Government Grants and Funding: ULBs receive grants from central and state governments for specific development projects and programs.
- Public-Private Partnerships: ULBs may collaborate with private companies to develop infrastructure, manage services, and attract investments for urban development.
Transparency and Accountability
- Public Meetings and Grievance Redressal: ULBs hold public meetings, maintain transparency in their decision-making processes, and establish grievance redressal mechanisms for citizen concerns.
- Right to Information Act: ULBs are obligated to provide information to citizens under the Right to Information Act, promoting transparency and accountability.
- E-Governance Initiatives: ULBs are increasingly adopting e-governance solutions for online service delivery, permit applications, and citizen engagement to enhance efficiency and accessibility.
5. Sources of Revenue for Urban Local Bodies
- Property Tax: A tax on the value of properties within the jurisdiction of the ULB.
- User Charges: Fees for services such as water supply, sewerage, and solid waste management.
- Professional Tax: A tax on the income earned by individuals engaged in various professions.
- Grant-in-Aid: Financial assistance provided by the state and central governments.
- Development Charges: Fees levied for allowing construction and development activities.
- License Fees: Charges for licenses issued for various commercial activities.
6. Challenges Faced by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
- Limited Financial Resources: ULBs often grapple with limited revenue-raising powers, resulting in insufficient funds for essential services and infrastructure development. Low levels of tax collection and revenue generation contribute to financial constraints.
- Lack of Autonomy: ULBs frequently lack autonomy in decision-making processes, relying on state governments for financial and administrative support. Dependence on higher authorities can hinder prompt responses to local needs and demands.
- Ambiguity of Functional Domain: Some states witness ambiguity in defining the functional domain of ULBs and parastatal bodies, creating confusion and hindering effective municipal governance.
- Limited Human Resources: Shortages of skilled and qualified personnel within ULBs impact their ability to efficiently execute tasks and deliver services. Insufficient manpower can be a barrier to effective urban governance.
- Poor Infrastructure: Many ULBs face challenges related to inadequate infrastructure, including deficient road networks, water supply systems, and sewage facilities. Insufficient infrastructure hampers the provision of basic services to urban residents.
- Political Interference: Political interference in the functioning of ULBs can compromise their independence and impartiality in decision-making processes. Political considerations may influence administrative and developmental activities.
- Limited Public Participation: ULBs often struggle with a lack of public participation in decision-making, diminishing their effectiveness and accountability. Inadequate citizen engagement can result in policies that do not align with community needs.
- Lack of Capacity: Many ULBs cannot plan, implement, and monitor development projects and programs effectively. Insufficient capacity can lead to inefficiencies and the misallocation of resources.
7. Successful Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
- Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) Implemented innovative initiatives to enhance citizens' quality of life. Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL) is a successful public-private partnership operating bus rapid transit corridors.
- Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) Recognized for effective waste management practices. Implemented door-to-door waste collection, waste segregation, and processing facilities.
- Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) Successfully used technology to monitor infrastructure projects and manage emergencies. Developed pedestrian-friendly streets, public parks, and other civic amenities.
- Indore Municipal Corporation: Consistently ranked as one of the cleanest cities in India. Focus on cleanliness, waste management, and sustainable urban development.
- Chandigarh Municipal Corporation: Known for well-planned urban infrastructure and green spaces. Efforts to preserve the architectural heritage of the city.
- Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC) Implemented various smart city projects for urban development. Emphasis on improving public services and infrastructure.
- Hyderabad Municipal Corporation focuses on enhancing urban infrastructure and connectivity. Initiatives for the restoration of lakes and water bodies.
- Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation Emphasizes sustainable development and eco-friendly initiatives. Encourages citizen participation in civic activities.
8. What is property tax?
Property tax is a form of direct tax imposed by local governments on the owners of real estate, such as land and buildings. It is a recurring tax that property owners are required to pay, and the amount is typically determined based on the assessed value of the property. The tax collected from property owners is used to fund local public services and infrastructure projects.
Key features of property tax include:
- The local government assesses the value of the property to determine the amount of tax owed. This assessment is often conducted periodically to account for changes in property values.
- Property tax is levied on the owner of the property rather than the occupant. Even if the property is rented out, the owner is responsible for paying the property tax.
- Property tax is a significant source of revenue for local governments, including municipal corporations, municipal councils, and other urban or rural local bodies.
- The revenue generated from property tax is used to finance various public services and community development projects, such as road maintenance, sanitation, education, and other essential municipal services.
- In some jurisdictions, property tax is designed to be progressive, meaning that properties with higher values pay proportionally more in taxes. This is often achieved by applying higher tax rates to properties with higher assessed values.
8.1. Is property tax collected by the central government?
- No, property tax is typically not collected by the central government. Instead, property tax is a local tax, and its collection falls under the jurisdiction of local or municipal governments. In most countries, including India, the United States, and many others, property tax is assessed and collected by local authorities such as municipal corporations, municipal councils, or other urban and rural local bodies.
- Local governments use property tax revenue to fund essential services and local infrastructure projects. The tax amount is generally based on the assessed value of the property, and the rates may vary depending on the local government's policies and regulations.
- While the central government may play a role in setting broad guidelines or frameworks for property taxation, the actual assessment, collection, and utilization of property tax revenue are carried out at the local level. It is a decentralized form of taxation that allows local authorities to have control over their revenue sources and make decisions based on the specific needs of their communities.
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For Prelims: Property Tax, Urban Local bodies, municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayats For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of property tax as a source of revenue for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). What are the challenges in efficient property tax assessment and collection, and how can they be addressed? (250 Words) |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Local self-government can be best explained as an exercise in (UPSC CSE 2017) (a) Federalism Answer (b) 2.The fundamental object of the Panchayati Raj system is to ensure which among the following? (UPSC CSE 2015)
Select the correct answer using the code given below (a) 1, 2 and 3 only Answer (c) |
FINANCE COMMISSION OF INDIA
The Finance Commission is a constitutional body in India, established under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution. Its primary purpose is to define the financial relations between the central government and the individual state governments.
Here are some key functions and roles of the Finance Commission:
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Distribution of Taxes: It recommends how the net proceeds of taxes should be divided between the Centre and the States, and among the States themselves.
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Grants-in-Aid: It determines the principles governing Grants-in-Aid to the States from the Consolidated Fund of India.
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Augmenting State Finances: It suggests measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and Municipalities in the State, based on the recommendations made by the State Finance Commissions.
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Financial Performance Review: It evaluates the financial performance of both the central and state governments and suggests corrective measures for better fiscal management.
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Any Other Matter: The Commission may also address any other matter referred to it by the President of India in the interest of sound finance.
The Finance Commission is reconstituted every five years and comprises a chairman and four other members, who are appointed by the President of India. The recommendations of the Finance Commission are advisory in nature, meaning they are not binding but are generally followed by the government
- The Finance Commission determines the percentage of the central government's net tax revenue allocated to the States overall (vertical devolution) and how this share is distributed among the individual States (horizontal devolution).
- The horizontal distribution is typically based on a formula devised by the Commission, which considers factors such as a State's population, fertility rate, income level, and geography.
- In contrast, vertical devolution does not follow a specific objective formula. Recent Finance Commissions have recommended increasing the share of tax revenues allocated to States. For instance, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Finance Commissions proposed that the Centre share 32%, 42%, and 41% of the divisible pool of funds, respectively, with the States. Additionally, the Centre may provide extra grants to States for certain jointly funded schemes.
- The 16th Finance Commission is anticipated to suggest ways to boost the revenues of local bodies, such as panchayats and municipalities. It is worth noting that, as of 2015, only about 3% of public spending in India occurred at the local body level, in contrast to countries like China, where over half of public spending happened at the local level
- Disagreements over the allocation of financial resources and the share of tax revenue. States often feel that they do not receive an adequate share of central taxes and grants, impacting their ability to fund local projects and services
- The central government sometimes makes decisions unilaterally, leading to perceptions of overreach and undermining the autonomy of state governments. This centralization can be seen in policy decisions, imposition of centrally sponsored schemes, and emergency provisions
- Conflicts often arise when different political parties govern the Centre and the States. Political rivalries can lead to tensions and lack of cooperation, impacting the implementation of policies and schemes
- The Constitution divides subjects into Union, State, and Concurrent Lists. Disputes can arise over subjects in the Concurrent List, where both the Centre and States have legislative powers. The Centre’s laws can sometimes override state laws, causing friction
- States may resist the implementation of central policies and reforms that they believe do not align with local needs and priorities. This resistance can lead to conflicts over policy implementation
- Disputes over the control and distribution of natural resources like water, minerals, and forests can create tensions. States often demand a greater say in the management and revenue from these resources
- Conditional grants and loans from the Centre can be a point of contention. States may feel that conditions imposed are restrictive and interfere with their autonomy
- Issues related to the appointment and control of key administrative positions, such as governors, can lead to conflicts. Governors are appointed by the Centre but play a crucial role in state administration
- The States and Centre often clash over the percentage of total tax proceeds that should be allocated to the States and the actual disbursement of these funds.
- States contend that they deserve a larger share than what the Finance Commission recommends, arguing that their responsibilities are greater than those of the Centre.
- They also criticize the Centre for not even allocating the recommended amounts, which they believe are already insufficient.
- For instance, analysts note that the Centre has transferred an average of only 38% of funds from the divisible pool to the States under the current Fifteenth Finance Commission, compared to the Commission’s recommendation of 41%.
- Additionally, States dispute what portion of the Centre’s total tax revenues should be included in the divisible pool from which they are funded. It is believed that cesses and surcharges, which are not included in the divisible pool and thus not shared with the States, can account for as much as 28% of the Centre’s total tax revenues in some years, significantly reducing States' revenues.
- Consequently, the increased devolution of funds from the divisible pool recommended by successive Finance Commissions may be offset by rising cess and surcharge collections. In fact, estimates suggest that if these cesses and surcharges are considered, the States' share of the Centre’s overall tax revenues could drop to as low as 32% under the 15th Finance Commission.
- More developed States like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have also complained that they receive less money from the Centre than they contribute in taxes. For example, Tamil Nadu received only 29 paise for each rupee it contributed to the Centre’s exchequer, while Bihar gets more than ₹7 for each rupee it contributes.
- Critics argue that more developed States with better governance are being penalized by the Centre to support States with poorer governance. Some also believe that the Finance Commission, whose members are appointed by the Centre, may not be entirely independent and free from political influence
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For Prelims: Finance Commission, Article 280, Fiscal Consolidation, Fiscal Federalism, and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the Role and Challenges of the Finance Commission in Promoting Fiscal Federalism and Ensuring Equitable Resource Distribution in India. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. With reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2011)
A. It encourages the inflow of foreign capital for infrastructure development.
B. It facilitates the proper distribution of finances among the Public Sector Undertaking.
C. It ensures transparency in financial administration.
D. None of the statements (a), (b), and (c) given above is correct in this context.
Answer: D
2. With reference to the Fourteenth Finance Commission, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2015)
1. It has increased the share of States in the central divisible pool from 32 percent to 42 percent.
2. It has made recommendations concerning sector-specific grants.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
3. Which of the following is/are among the noticeable features of the recommendations of the Thirteenth Finance Commission? (UPSC 2012)
1. A design for the Goods and Services Tax, and a compensation package linked to adherence to the proposed design.
2. A design for the creation of lakhs of jobs in the next ten years in consonance with India's demographic dividend.
3. Devolution of a specified share of central taxes to local bodies as grants
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
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JAL JEEVAN MISSION
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The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.
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However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.
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The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.
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Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments
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Government Schemes related to Water
Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation
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The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.
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The programme is built on several core components, which include:
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Development of sewage treatment infrastructure
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Revitalization of riverfront areas
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Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste
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Promotion and protection of biodiversity
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Expansion of afforestation along the river basin
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Enhancing public engagement and awareness
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Monitoring of industrial waste discharge
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Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams
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River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.
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This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.
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On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
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The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.
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The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:
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Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.
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Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.
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A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.
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Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component
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Yamuna river
Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.
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Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India
The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.
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In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.
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Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right
Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment
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Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.
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Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation
Environmental Duties of Citizens
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Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings
Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution
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Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:
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Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.
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Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.
This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes
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Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles
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Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.
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Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament
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For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy
For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water
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NO CONFIDENCE MOTION
1. Context
2. No confidence motion
- A no-confidence motion, also known as a motion of no confidence or a vote of no confidence, is a significant parliamentary mechanism used in democratic systems to express the legislature's lack of confidence in the government or a specific member of the government.
- A no-confidence motion can be moved only in the Lok Sabha and by any member of the House.
- The member has to give a written notice of the motion before 10 am and at least 50 members have to accept the motion. The Speaker will then decide the date for the discussion of the motion.
- It serves as a crucial tool for holding elected officials accountable for their actions and decisions.
3. Initiating a No Confidence Motion
- The process of initiating a no-confidence motion typically begins with the opposition parties.
- They may present a formal proposal in the legislative chamber, backed by a specific number of lawmakers' signatures.
- In some cases, dissatisfied members from the ruling party might also initiate such a motion.
- The primary purpose is to ascertain whether the government or a particular minister still commands the majority support in the legislature.
4. Debate and Voting Process
- Once the no-confidence motion is tabled, a debate follows, during which lawmakers discuss the reasons for their lack of confidence in the government's performance.
- This debate allows the government to present its side and attempt to persuade lawmakers to vote in their favor.
- Following the debate, a vote is held, and if the motion garners a majority of votes against the government or minister, it is considered successful.
5. Impact on Governance
- A successful no-confidence motion carries significant consequences.
- In some parliamentary systems, it leads to the resignation of the government, triggering the dissolution of the parliament and necessitating new elections.
- Alternatively, the opposition parties may be invited to form a new government if they can demonstrate sufficient support.
6. Responsible Use and Political Stability:
- While the no-confidence motion is a powerful democratic tool, its frequent or frivolous use can create political instability and hinder effective governance.
- Therefore, lawmakers must exercise discretion, focusing on critical issues and genuine concerns.
- Responsible use of the no-confidence motion ensures that the government remains accountable to the people and that the country's stability is maintained.
7. Significance of No confidence motion
The no-confidence motion holds significant importance in a democratic system, and its significance lies in the following aspects:
- Government Accountability: The no-confidence motion serves as a powerful mechanism to hold the government accountable for its actions, decisions, and policies. It allows the legislature to express its lack of confidence in the government's performance, ensuring that the executive branch remains answerable to the elected representatives and the public.
- Checks and Balances: In a democratic setup, the separation of powers is vital to prevent the concentration of authority. The no-confidence motion is one of the key instruments that the legislature can employ to check the powers of the government. It helps maintain a system of checks and balances, ensuring that no single branch of government becomes too dominant.
- Democratic Oversight: The no-confidence motion reinforces the principle of democratic oversight. It enables the elected representatives to actively monitor the government's performance and initiate action if they believe the government is not living up to its mandate or is engaged in misconduct.
- Crisis Resolution: In times of political crises or governance failures, the no-confidence motion can be used as a means to address the situation. If the government is unable to provide effective leadership or address pressing issues, the legislature can signal its lack of confidence, prompting necessary changes in the government or leading to new elections.
- Encourages Responsible Governance: The possibility of facing a no-confidence motion encourages the government to govern responsibly and make decisions that are in the best interest of the people. It acts as a motivator for the government to deliver on its promises and avoid policies that may be unpopular with the majority.
- Promotes Public Debate: The no-confidence motion triggers debates and discussions in the legislature, providing a platform for lawmakers to express their views and concerns openly. This fosters a healthy democratic environment where different perspectives are heard and considered.
8. Previous instances of No-confidence motion
- Since Independence, 27 no-confidence motions have been moved in Lok Sabha.
- The first no-confidence motion was moved against Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru by Congress leader Acharya Kripalani in August 1963, immediately after losing to China in the 1962 war. The motion, however, was defeated.
- Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister faced the most number of no-confidence motions - 15. She survived each of the 15 floor tests. Former West Bengal CM Jyotirmoy Basu of the CPI(M) has moved four no-confidence motions.
- Narasimha Rao had to face three no-confidence motions, Morarji Desai two, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Narendra Modi have all faced one each.
- The last no-confidence motion was in 2003 when the then Congress President Sonia Gandhi moved the motion against Vajpayee.
- The duration of the longest debate on a no-confidence motion was 24.34 hours against Lal Bahadur Shastri, who has had to prove the majority of the House thrice.
- Most no-confidence motions have been defeated except in 1979 when Prime Minister Morarji Desai had to quit and in 1999 when the Vajpayee government lost power after their ally AIADMK pulled out of the coalition.
- In 2018, the Narendra Modi-led NDA government survived the no-confidence motion in the Lok Sabha by 195 votes. While 135 members supported the motion, 330 MPs rejected it.
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For Prelims: No-confidence motion, Lok Sabha, Checks and Balances, Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the concept of a "No Confidence Motion" in a parliamentary democracy. Explain its purpose and significance in holding the government accountable for its actions and decisions. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements regarding a No-Confidence Motion in India: (UPSC 2014)
1. There is no mention of a No-Confidence Motion in the Constitution of India.
2. A Motion of No-Confidence can be introduced in the Lok Sabha only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
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16TH FINANCE COMMISSION
1. Context
2. Finance Commission
- The Finance Commission is a crucial constitutional body in India responsible for the distribution of financial resources between the central government and the state governments.
- It plays a vital role in maintaining fiscal federalism by ensuring a fair and equitable distribution of financial revenues and grants-in-aid among the various tiers of government.
- The Finance Commission is set up every five years, or at such earlier intervals as the President of India may decide, as per Article 280 of the Indian Constitution.
- It consists of a Chairman and four other members, each appointed by the President. These members are experts in the fields of economics, finance, and public administration.
3. Mandate and Functions
- The primary objective of the Finance Commission is to make recommendations to the President regarding the distribution of the net proceeds of taxes between the Union (central government) and the states, and the allocation of resources among the states.
- It also suggests measures to improve the financial position of the states, if necessary. The Commission's recommendations are aimed at addressing regional imbalances and ensuring the overall economic development of the country.
4. The specific functions of the Finance Commission include
- Tax Revenue Sharing: The Commission reviews the trends in revenue collections and recommends the percentage of the divisible pool of taxes that should be shared with the states. The divisible pool includes taxes like income tax, corporate tax, and excise duty.
- Grants-in-Aid: Besides the devolution of taxes, the Finance Commission also suggests grants-in-aid to states to support their financial requirements for various developmental projects and schemes.
- Debt Relief: The Commission may recommend measures to provide relief to states facing a high burden of debt, thereby promoting fiscal discipline.
- Macro-Fiscal Management: It examines the overall financial situation of the country and suggests measures to maintain macroeconomic stability.
- Any Other Matter: The President may also refer specific matters to the Commission for examination and recommendations.
5. Process of Working
- The Finance Commission follows a consultative process while formulating its recommendations.
- It seeks input from various stakeholders, including the central and state governments, local bodies, financial experts, and economists.
- The Commission examines historical data, financial indicators, and the needs of states to arrive at a comprehensive and objective assessment.
- After conducting detailed studies and consultations, the Commission submits its report to the President.
- The recommendations of the Finance Commission are ordinarily binding in nature, and both the central and state governments are expected to implement them. However, their acceptance depends on the discretion of the central government.
6. Importance
- The Finance Commission is crucial in maintaining the federal structure of India and ensuring that all states receive adequate financial support for their development.
- By promoting equitable distribution of resources, helps in reducing regional disparities and fostering balanced economic growth across the country.
- The Commission's recommendations also play a vital role in shaping the fiscal policies of both the central and state governments.
7. Recommendations of the Previous Finance Commission
13th Finance Commission Recommendations:
- Increase the number of court working hours using existing infrastructure.
- Enhance support to Lok Adalats.
- Provide additional funding to State Legal Services Authorities to enhance legal aid for the marginalized.
- Promote the use of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms.
- Enhance the capacity of judicial officers and public prosecutors through training programs.
- Support the creation of a judicial academy in every state for training purposes.
- Allocate funds for the setting up of specialized courts.
- Raised states' share in the divisible pool of central taxes to 42%
- Revised to 41% after the number of states reduced to 28
- The withdrawal of Planning Commission grants helped manage the situation
15th Finance Commission Recommendations:
- Gather quantifiable data on the level of various services available in different states.
- Collect corresponding unit cost data to estimate cost disabilities among states.
- Fill gaps in statistical data through the efforts of the Ministry of Statistics.
8. Need for realistic expectations regarding the following 16th Finance Commission
- Acknowledging Implementation Challenges: Recognize the challenges and complexities involved in implementing Finance Commission recommendations, such as coordination issues, administrative capacity, and resistance to change. This understanding will help shape realistic expectations and strategies for addressing these challenges.
- Strengthening Implementation Mechanisms: Focus on improving the implementation mechanisms and processes. This includes enhancing coordination and cooperation between the Union and state governments, strengthening administrative capacity at all levels, and streamlining the implementation of conditionalities to facilitate smoother execution.
- Robust Monitoring and Evaluation: Establish effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the progress and outcomes of implemented reforms. Regular assessment will help identify implementation gaps and provide opportunities for course correction and improvement.
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For Prelims: Finance Commission, Article 280, Fiscal Consolidation, Fiscal Federalism, and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the Role and Challenges of the Finance Commission in Promoting Fiscal Federalism and Ensuring Equitable Resource Distribution in India. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. With reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2011)
A. It encourages the inflow of foreign capital for infrastructure development.
B. It facilitates the proper distribution of finances among the Public Sector Undertaking.
C. It ensures transparency in financial administration.
D. None of the statements (a), (b), and (c) given above is correct in this context.
Answer: D
2. With reference to the Fourteenth Finance Commission, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2015)
1. It has increased the share of States in the central divisible pool from 32 percent to 42 percent.
2. It has made recommendations concerning sector-specific grants.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
3. Which of the following is/are among the noticeable features of the recommendations of the Thirteenth Finance Commission? (UPSC 2012)
1. A design for the Goods and Services Tax, and a compensation package linked to adherence to the proposed design.
2. A design for the creation of lakhs of jobs in the next ten years in consonance with India's demographic dividend.
3. Devolution of a specified share of central taxes to local bodies as grants
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
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LANGUAGE LEARNING MODEL (LLM)
New Delhi wrapped up the India AI Impact Summit 2026 on February 21, with its organisers billing it as the world’s “largest and most historic” AI summit.
- Language Learning Models, more commonly referred to as Large Language Models (LLMs), are a type of artificial intelligence system designed to understand and generate human language.
- They are built to read text, identify patterns in how language is used, and then produce responses that are coherent and contextually relevant. The term “large” refers to the enormous amount of data they are trained on, as well as the vast number of parameters—mathematical values—that help them process and predict language.
- At their core, these models work by learning from examples. During training, they are exposed to massive collections of text drawn from books, articles, research papers, and other publicly available material.
- Instead of memorizing specific answers, they learn the statistical relationships between words. In simple terms, they learn how likely one word is to follow another in a given context. Over time, this ability to predict the next word in a sentence becomes highly refined, allowing the model to generate complete paragraphs, essays, summaries, translations, or even computer code.
- Modern language models are typically built using a neural network architecture known as the Transformer. This design allows the system to pay attention to the relationships between words in a sentence, even if those words are far apart.
- Because of this, the model can understand context better than earlier language-processing systems. For example, it can distinguish between different meanings of the same word depending on how it is used in a sentence, and it can maintain coherence across longer passages of text.
- Although these models can appear intelligent, they do not truly “understand” language in the human sense. They do not possess consciousness, personal experiences, or emotions.
- Their responses are generated based on learned patterns rather than genuine comprehension. This means they can sometimes produce incorrect or misleading information, especially if the training data contained errors or biases.
- Language Learning Models have become important because they change the way humans interact with technology. Instead of using rigid commands or technical instructions, users can communicate naturally in everyday language.
- This has applications in education, business, governance, research, customer service, and many other fields. By enabling machines to process and generate language fluently, these models act as powerful tools that assist with writing, problem-solving, and information analysis.
- Large Language Models are developed and deployed using clusters of high-performance Graphics Processing Units (GPUs). The expense of procuring these GPUs, combined with the substantial electricity required to operate them for extended training periods, often amounts to several million dollars.
- Equally critical to this process is access to vast volumes of data, much of which is sourced from the internet. However, online content is far more abundant in English, European languages, and East Asian languages such as Korean and Japanese, compared to most Indian languages.
- This imbalance creates a dual difficulty for building LLMs within India using domestic funding.
- First, the limited availability of high-quality data in Indian languages means that many models either deliver weaker performance in these languages or consume additional computational resources—often translating user inputs into English for processing and then translating responses back into the original language.
- Although machine translation for Indian languages has improved significantly and is frequently relied upon to enhance output quality, this approach is not always optimal.
- Second, financial constraints present another barrier. Developing and training large-scale language models requires significant capital investment, which can be difficult for Indian companies to justify, particularly in the absence of clear and immediate commercial applications tailored to local markets.
- Dependence on translation layers also poses practical challenges for developers aiming to promote indigenous LLMs.
- For instance, locally developed models such as Sarvam’s 35-billion-parameter system—demonstrated at a summit research symposium and adapted for use on feature phones—may face limitations if their performance in Indian languages is not robust. Such shortcomings can affect user experience, adoption rates, and overall effectiveness in real-world applications
- Under the IndiaAI Mission, the government has supported domestic AI development by facilitating large-scale computing infrastructure within the country.
- More than 36,000 GPUs have been deployed across data centres run by Indian companies such as Yotta, enabling researchers and startups to undertake model training and inference at concessional rates.
- As part of this initiative, Sarvam was provided access to 4,096 GPUs from a shared national compute facility, with government support for this effort estimated at nearly ₹100 crore.
- The total infrastructure cost of this GPU cluster is reported to be around ₹246 crore, though the resources are expected to remain available for broader use beyond a single project.
- The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has promoted indigenous LLM development for multiple strategic reasons. A central concern is that models created abroad may lack both the incentive and the contextual depth needed to effectively support India’s diverse linguistic landscape.
- Additionally, building domestic capacity to train and deploy large language models is viewed as essential for strengthening India’s broader artificial intelligence ecosystem and nurturing homegrown expertise.
- In this context, Sarvam’s unveiling of its two language models marks an important milestone in India’s efforts to build a high-performance yet cost-efficient LLM. The government appears keen to replicate the kind of cost innovation seen when China’s DeepSeek introduced its R1 model, which was rapidly adopted across the AI sector for reducing training and inference expenses without sacrificing performance quality. Policymakers hope to encourage a similar competitive advantage in India
An important advancement for AI systems designed to operate efficiently in local environments has been the development of the Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture. Early large language models were built with hundreds of billions—or even more than a trillion—parameters, and during inference they generally relied on activating the entire network of parameters to generate responses. This approach significantly increased computational costs and made each query resource-intensive.
In contrast, the MoE framework improves efficiency by engaging only a selected subset of the model’s parameters for any given task. By activating just a portion of the overall network rather than the whole system, MoE-based models can process requests more quickly while reducing computational load and operational expenses
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-III: Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.
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Previous Year Questions
1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs 3. Disease diagnosis 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion 5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b) (b) 1, 3, and 4 only Explanation:
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