NILGIRI TAHR
1. Context
In 2024, the Chokramudi hills under the Bison Valley panchayat near Munnar in Idukki, Kerala, were known primarily as a hub of encroachers. However, just two years later, the landscape had been transformed into a thriving natural habitat for the endangered Nilgiri tahrs
2. About Nilgiri Tahr
The Nilgiri tahr is the sole species of mountain-dwelling ungulate native to southern India, out of the twelve such species found nationwide. It holds the distinction of being Tamil Nadu’s state animal.
Historically, the Nilgiri tahr inhabited the entire stretch of the Western Ghats. However, its range has now diminished drastically, and it survives only in a few isolated patches. Much of its original population has vanished, primarily due to extensive habitat destruction and hunting pressures.
This species, which is unique to the Western Ghats, is currently classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and receives the highest level of legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
According to a 2015 report by WWF India, the wild population of Nilgiri tahrs is estimated to be around 3,122 individuals
3. Distrinution and habitat of Nilgiri tahr
- The Nilgiri tahr is a sure-footed ungulate that inhabits the open montane grassland habitats at elevations from 1200 to 2600 m of the South Western Ghats. Currently, the Nilgiri tahr distribution is along a narrow stretch of 400 km in the Western Ghats between Nilgiris in the north and Kanyakumari hills in the south of the region.
- Though there are smaller populations found in the Palani hills, Srivilliputtur, and the Meghamalai and Agasthiyar ranges, only two well-protected, large populations are documented -- one from the Nilgiris and the other from the Anamalais, including the high ranges of Kerala.
- The Eravikulam National Park in Anamalai hills, Kerala, is home to the largest population of the Nilgiri tahr, with more than 700 individuals
4. Threats for Nilgiri tahr
- The Nilgiri tahr faces several threats to its survival, primarily due to widespread deforestation, which leads to significant loss of natural habitat. Its living space is further reduced by grazing competition from domestic livestock, the development of hydroelectric projects within its native range, and the spread of monoculture plantations.
- Additionally, although rare, the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and skin.
- The severe fragmentation of its habitat has caused a sharp decline in population in recent years. Activities such as plantation expansion continue to disturb the tahr’s natural environment, especially the grasslands and shola forests that are essential for its survival
5. Mukurthi National Park
- Mukurthi National Park is a protected area located in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu and forms a part of the larger Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, which spans across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
- The park lies in the western part of the Nilgiris Plateau and is particularly significant for its unique ecosystem comprising montane grasslands interspersed with shola forests. These high-altitude tropical forests are known for their rich biodiversity and ecological importance.
- Covering an area of around 78 square kilometers, Mukurthi National Park was originally established to protect the Nilgiri tahr, an endangered mountain ungulate endemic to the Western Ghats. Over the years, it has become a vital sanctuary not only for the Nilgiri tahr but also for many other endemic and endangered species of flora and fauna.
- The landscape of the park is marked by rolling grasslands, rugged peaks, and deep valleys. It receives heavy rainfall and has a cool, misty climate for most of the year, contributing to its lush vegetation.
- The park is home to a variety of wildlife, including species such as the Indian leopard, jungle cat, jackal, sambar deer, and a diverse range of birds, reptiles, and butterflies.
- Mukurthi is part of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its exceptional biological diversity. The park also plays a crucial role in preserving water sources, as many rivers and streams originate in this region.
- Owing to its fragile ecosystem and conservation priorities, tourism in Mukurthi is tightly regulated, with limited access to ensure minimal human interference.
- Overall, Mukurthi National Park stands as a symbol of conservation efforts in the Nilgiris, especially for the protection of the Nilgiri tahr and the preservation of the unique shola-grassland ecosystem that is increasingly under threat due to habitat degradation and climate change
|
For Prelims: Nilgiri tahr, Western ghats, IUCN Red List
For Mains: GS III - Environment & Ecology
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.The "Red Data Books" published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of (UPSC CSE 2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for the conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A.1 and 3
B.2 only
C.2 and 3
D.3 only
Answer (B)
|
Source: The Hindu
SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
1. Context
A Parliamentary Standing Committee has asked the Election Commission to ensure that no genuine elector is excluded from the voters’ lists or subjected to undue hardship during the Special Intensive Revision (SIR), which has concluded in many States and will begin in others soon.
2. What is the Special Intensive Revision?
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
|
During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
|
3. Election Commission of India, its powers and functions
- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
4. How is SIR different from the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
5. What are the concerns related to SIR?
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
-
Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
-
Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
-
Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
-
This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
-
Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
-
Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
-
Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
-
Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
6. Way Forward
While the Special Intensive Revision is essential for ensuring clean and updated electoral rolls, its effectiveness depends on transparent procedures, proper training, digital accuracy, and public awareness.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
|
For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
|
Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
|
Source: Indianexpress
ELECTRIC VEHICLES ARE CATCHING FIRE
1. Context
A fire tore through a house in Indore on March 18, killing eight people, including two children. An electric vehicle (EV) charging point outside appeared to have sparked the blaze. An investigation is underway.
2. Are EV Batteries Safe?
- Electric vehicle (EV) batteries are generally safe, but understanding why they are considered safe—and where the risks come from—requires a closer look at how they work.
- Most EVs use lithium-ion batteries, which store a large amount of energy in a compact space. This high energy density is what makes EVs efficient and capable of long driving ranges.
- However, it also means that if something goes wrong—such as overheating or physical damage—the energy can be released rapidly. This is where concerns about safety, especially fires, arise.
- In normal conditions, EV batteries are carefully controlled by sophisticated systems. Each battery pack is managed by a Battery Management System (BMS), which continuously monitors temperature, voltage, and current.
- If any abnormality is detected—like excessive heat or overcharging—the system can shut down or isolate parts of the battery to prevent further damage.
- In addition, modern EVs are equipped with cooling systems, often liquid-based, that regulate temperature during charging and driving. These features significantly reduce the likelihood of dangerous situations.
- Despite these safeguards, there are specific scenarios where risks can emerge. One of the most discussed is “thermal runaway,” a chain reaction where a battery cell overheats and triggers neighboring cells to do the same.
- This can happen due to manufacturing defects, poor-quality materials, or external damage such as a severe accident. Once initiated, thermal runaway can be difficult to stop and may lead to fire. However, it is important to note that such incidents are relatively rare, especially in well-regulated and high-quality vehicles.
- Another factor influencing safety is the quality of manufacturing and regulation. In countries like India, earlier incidents involving electric two-wheelers highlighted how substandard battery design or lack of proper testing could lead to failures.
- This prompted the government to introduce stricter safety standards, such as AIS-156, which mandate rigorous testing and better thermal management systems. As a result, the industry has been moving toward safer battery chemistries, such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP), which are more stable and less prone to overheating.
- When compared to conventional petrol or diesel vehicles, EVs actually catch fire less frequently. However, when EV fires do occur, they can be more challenging to extinguish because the battery can reignite even after the initial flames are put out. This has led to new firefighting protocols and safety training worldwide
3. What are the Causes for thermal runaway?
- Manufacturers typically enclose EV battery packs within strong casings made of reinforced steel or aluminium to enhance protection. However, a severe impact—especially to the underside of the vehicle—can distort the outer casing and damage the internal cells, potentially causing a short circuit.
- Overcharging is another concern. When a battery is charged beyond its intended limits, excess charge may accumulate in unintended areas within the cells.
- While established EV manufacturers incorporate safety mechanisms to prevent this, the same level of protection may not exist with faulty or third-party chargers. Regular overnight charging using such equipment can therefore raise the risk.
- In addition, batteries naturally expand and contract during operation. In rare cases, manufacturing flaws—such as tiny metal irregularities—can cause the positive and negative electrodes to come into contact.
- This can trigger a surge of current, generating heat that may spread across the battery pack. Electrical infrastructure also plays a role; for instance, outdated household wiring or extension cords may overheat if they are unable to handle the continuous electrical load
4. Do external conditions matter?
- In high temperatures, the cooling mechanisms in EVs may find it difficult to dissipate excess heat effectively. Leaving a vehicle parked under direct sunlight for extended periods or plugging it in for charging immediately after a long drive can further increase thermal strain on the battery.
- Over time, batteries undergo natural wear and tear, leading to the deterioration of their internal components. If users neglect warning signals or fail to carry out routine inspections, early indicators such as swelling or chemical breakdown may go unnoticed.
- Flood conditions pose another significant risk. After heavy rains, polluted water can seep into the battery pack, potentially triggering short circuits. In fact, several EV fire incidents have been reported days after vehicles were exposed to floodwater.
- It is important to note that EVs are not inherently more hazardous than conventional vehicles. Petrol-powered cars also catch fire—and often more frequently—because they store highly flammable fuel near engines that operate at high temperatures.
- However, fires involving EV batteries tend to burn at higher temperatures, spread more rapidly, and are more difficult to extinguish, partly because the battery can release oxygen during combustion.
- In the Indore case, the severity of the incident was compounded by additional factors, including the presence of LPG cylinders inside the house, a sports bike parked indoors, and electronic door locks that failed during the power outage
5. Contemporary Scenario in Industry
- Most modern EVs are equipped with cooling channels running alongside the battery cells, through which a coolant circulates to absorb excess heat and release it into the surrounding air.
- Researchers are now working on advanced cooling methods in which the coolant evaporates as it takes in heat, allowing for more efficient heat transfer and better management of sudden temperature increases.
- At the same time, manufacturers are experimenting with batteries that use solid electrolytes instead of liquid ones, aiming to lower the chances of thermal runaway.
- They are also improving internal safety barriers so that if a single cell malfunctions, the resulting fire does not spread to the rest of the battery pack.
- On the user side, certain precautions can significantly enhance safety. It is advisable to use only the charger provided with the vehicle or one approved by the manufacturer, avoid leaving the vehicle to charge unattended for long periods, and ensure that household electrical systems are capable of handling high-power loads.
- Additionally, batteries should be checked after any major impact. Experts also suggest allowing the battery to cool down after extended use before plugging it in, and keeping the charging area free from obstructions.
- In response to a series of fire incidents, the Bureau of Indian Standards introduced revised safety guidelines for EV batteries in 2023.
- Under the AIS-156 standard, the Automotive Research Association of India mandates rigorous testing to assess how heat spreads within a battery pack and requires designs that provide occupants with at least five minutes to safely evacuate in the event of a fire.
6. Way Forward
Another critical dimension is charging infrastructure and electrical readiness. As EV adoption grows in countries like India, the supporting electrical systems—especially in residential areas—must be upgraded. Old wiring, unsafe extension cords, and uncertified chargers can become weak links. Standardization and certification of public and private charging systems will reduce these risks significantly
|
For Prelims: Electric Vehicles, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME), Global Lithium Value Chain.
For Mains: 1. Analyze the challenges and opportunities in promoting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in developing countries like India. Discuss the key factors that hinder EV penetration and propose strategies to overcome them.(250 Words)
|
Previous year Question1. Which of the following Indian States/Union Territories launched Electric Vehicle Policy on 7th August 2020? (UPPSC 2020)A. Madhya Pradesh
B. Uttar Pradesh
C. Delhi
D. Tamil Nadu
Answer: C
|
Source: The Hindu
MATERNITY LEAVE IN INDIA
1. Context
Last week, the Supreme Court ruled that adoptive mothers could avail themselves of 12 weeks of paid maternity leave regardless of the age of their children at the time of adoption. Striking down Section 60(4) of the Social Security Code, 2020 (previously Section 5(4) of the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961), which limited this benefit only to mothers who adopted children under the age of three months, the Court said that an adoptive mother had the same rights and obligations towards the child as a biological mother.
2. Maternity leave in India
- The provision of statutory maternity benefits for working women in India traces its origins to the colonial period. The Bombay Maternity Benefit Act of 1929 was among the earliest laws, extending such benefits to women employed in factories.
- Over time, similar legislation was introduced in other regions prior to Independence. Eventually, in 1961, Parliament enacted the Maternity Benefit Act, which granted 12 weeks of paid maternity leave to working women nationwide.
- A significant reform came in 2017 with the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act. This amendment increased paid maternity leave for biological mothers to 26 weeks and, for the first time, included provisions for adoptive and surrogate mothers.
- Under Section 5(4), women who legally adopt a child below the age of three months, as well as commissioning mothers, are eligible for 12 weeks of maternity leave starting from the date the child is handed over to them
3. Drawbacks of the above law
- While the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 and its 2017 amendment marked a progressive step for working women, the framework has several structural and practical limitations that affect its effectiveness.
- One of the most significant drawbacks is that the law places the entire financial burden of paid maternity leave on employers rather than the state.
- This increases the cost of hiring women, especially in the private sector, and can unintentionally discourage employers from recruiting or promoting women of childbearing age. In this sense, a well-intentioned welfare measure may contribute to gender discrimination in hiring practices.
- Another major limitation is its restricted coverage. The law applies mainly to women working in the formal sector, which constitutes only a small fraction of India’s workforce.
- A vast majority of women employed in the informal sector—such as domestic workers, agricultural labourers, and gig workers—remain outside its scope, thereby excluding those who are often most vulnerable.
- The 2017 amendment to the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 extended leave to 26 weeks, which is beneficial for child and maternal health, but it has also raised concerns among employers regarding productivity and workforce continuity.
- Smaller firms, in particular, may struggle to manage prolonged employee absence without adequate support or incentives from the government.
- The provision for adoptive and surrogate mothers, while a positive inclusion, is limited in scope.
- It applies only when the adopted child is below three months of age, excluding many adoptive parents who take in older infants or children. This creates an inconsistency in how caregiving responsibilities are recognized.
- Additionally, the law does not adequately address paternity leave or shared parental responsibilities. By focusing almost entirely on mothers, it reinforces traditional gender roles and places the burden of childcare primarily on women, which can further affect their long-term career progression.
- There are also implementation challenges. Awareness about entitlements remains low among workers, and compliance is uneven, particularly in smaller establishments. Monitoring mechanisms are not always robust, leading to gaps between legal provisions and actual practice
|
Supreme Court on Motherhood
The Court emphasized that motherhood should not be confined to a purely biological perspective. It recognized adoption as an integral aspect of reproductive autonomy. Highlighting the importance of leave, the Court observed that this period is essential for building a strong emotional connection between the mother and the child. It further pointed out that children raised in institutional settings often exhibit higher levels of stress hormones compared to those brought up in family environments, underscoring the need for adequate paid leave even in cases involving older adopted children
|
4. Maternity Benefit Act 1961
- The Maternity Benefit Act was originally passed by Parliament on December 12, 1961, to regulate the employment of women in “certain establishments” for the period before and after childbirth and “to provide for maternity benefit and certain other benefits.”
- Originally it applied to every establishment “being a factory, mine or plantation” and later in 1973, it was extended to “any such establishment belonging to Government” and “every establishment where persons are employed for the exhibition of equestrian, acrobatic and other performances.”
- It repealed the Mines Maternity Benefit Act, 1941 and Maternity Benefit Act, 1929
- Section 4 of the 1961 Act prohibited the employment of or work by women during a certain period and under sub-section (1) stated, “No employer shall knowingly employ a woman in any establishment during the six weeks immediately following the day of her delivery or her miscarriage.”
- The right to paid maternity leaves was also given under Section 5 of the 1961 Act, although the period of such leave could not exceed twelve weeks, “that is to say, six weeks up to and including the day of her delivery and six weeks immediately following that day.”
- Additionally, no woman could be allowed to avail maternity benefits if she had not worked in the establishment for at least “one hundred and sixty days in the twelve months immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery.”
- These benefits would be allowed without dismissing the female worker from service or reduction of wages
- Violating provisions of the Act could result in three months’ punishment, with or without a fine
- On March 9, 2017, the Maternity Benefits (Amendment) Act 2017, was passed by Parliament, which brought about key changes to the original Act
5. Way Forward
The Court also urged the Union government to consider introducing a comprehensive legal provision that formally recognises paternity leave for all fathers, whether biological or adoptive. It observed that India’s existing legal framework does not sufficiently acknowledge the role of fathers in childcare and stressed the need to promote shared parenting responsibilities. At present, only male government employees are eligible for 15 days of paternity leave in cases of childbirth or adoption, while in the private sector, such leave is largely governed by individual company policies
Source: The Hindu
QUANTUM COMPUTING
1. Context
In everyday life, cause always comes before effect. A window won’t break before you throw a ball at it. But quantum mechanics has long hinted that this rule can be broken. Physicists from the University of Vienna and the Christian Doppler Laboratory for Photonic Quantum Computer have now taken a big step to proving it in an experiment.In everyday life, cause always comes before effect.
2. About quantum computing
- Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers.
- IBM Quantum makes real quantum hardware a tool scientists only began to imagine three decades ago available to hundreds of thousands of developers.
- Engineers deliver ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical orchestration.
- This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity necessary to change the world.
- These machines are very different from the classical computers that have been around for more than half a century.
Image Source: IBM
3. Need for quantum computers
- For some problems, supercomputers aren’t that super. When scientists and engineers encounter difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers.
- These are very large classical computers, often with thousands of classical CPU and GPU cores. However, even supercomputers struggle to solve certain kinds of problems.
- If a supercomputer gets stumped, that's probably because the big classical machine was asked to solve a problem with a high degree of complexity. When classical computers fail, it's often due to complexity
- Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways.
- Modelling the behaviour of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because of all the different electrons interacting with one another.
- Sorting out the ideal routes for a few hundred tankers in a global shipping network is complex too.
4. Quantum computers work
- Quantum computers are elegant machines, smaller and requiring less energy than supercomputers.
- An IBM Quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the one found in a laptop.
- And a quantum hardware system is about the size of a car, made up mostly of cooling systems to keep the superconducting processor at its ultra-cold operational temperature.
- A classical processor uses bits to perform its operations. A quantum computer uses qubits (CUE-bits) to run multidimensional quantum algorithms.
4.1. Superfluids
- A desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work.
- Quantum processors need to be very cold about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero.
- To achieve this, we use super-cooled superfluids to create superconductors.
4.2. Superconductors
- At those ultra-low temperatures, certain materials in our processors exhibit another important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without resistance. This makes them "superconductors."
- When electrons pass through superconductors they match up, forming "Cooper pairs."
- These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process known as quantum tunnelling.
- Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator form a Josephson junction.
4.3. Control
- Our quantum computers use Josephson junctions as superconducting qubits.
- By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control their behaviour and get them to hold, change, and read out individual units of quantum information.
4.4. Superposition
- A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can perform an important trick: placing the quantum information it holds into a state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of the qubit.
- Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these spaces.
4.5. Entanglement
- Entanglement is a quantum mechanical effect that correlates the behaviour of two separate things.
- When two qubits are entangled, changes to one qubit directly impact the other.
- Quantum algorithms leverage those relationships to find solutions to complex problems.
5. Making quantum computers useful
- Right now, IBM Quantum leads the world in quantum computing hardware and software. It is a clear and detailed plan to scale quantum processors, overcomes the scaling problem, and build the hardware necessary for quantum advantage.
- Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone.
- IBM has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to do useful work using quantum computers.
- They developed the Qiskit quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most widely-used quantum SDK in the world.
- The Qiskit Runtime is the most powerful quantum programming model in the world.
- Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and classical resources.
|
For Prelims: Quantum computing, supercomputers, Qiskit Runtime, IBM, National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications, superconductors,
For Mains:
1. What is Quantum computing? Discuss the need for Quantum Computers in emerging countries like India. (250 Words)
2. What are quantum computers and how are they different from conventional computers? Where does India stand in the race to build quantum computers that can realise their full potential? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. India's first Supercomputer is (TSPSC AEE 2015)
A. Aditya
B. Param Yuva
C. Param
D. Vikram-100
Answer: C
2. What is the full form of IBM? (SSC Steno 2017)
A. International Business Machine
B. Indian Beta Machine
C. Integral Business Machine
D. Internal Beta Machine
Answer: A
3. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC 2022)
A. Cloud Services
B. Quantum Computing
C. Visible Light Communication Technologies
D. Wireless Communication Technologies
Answer: B
4. Quantum computing uses (ACC 124 CGAT 2021)
A. Qubit
B. Bits
C. Bytes
D. Qubytes
Answer: A
|
Source: IBM
LANDSLIDES
1. Context
Directions were issued to evacuate nine houses at Ropdu village in Himachal Pradesh’s Mandi district on Sunday following a massive landslide. A landslide occurred in Kotli subdivision following intermittent rains over the past three days
2.What is a Landslide?
A landslide is a geological phenomenon involving the movement of a mass of rock, earth, or debris down a slope. Landslides can occur due to various factors, including natural processes and human activities
The downslope movement of soil, rock, and organic materials under the influence of gravity
Types:
- Rockfalls
- Debris flows
- Mudflows
- Slumps
- Earthflows
3. Landslides in India
- The recent cases of land subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand, captured the spotlight.
- On June 29, 2022, at least 79 people were killed in a landslide in the Noney district of Manipur.
- The risk analysis in the report was based on the density of human and livestock populations, which indicates the impacts on people due to these landslides.
- The disaster in Kedaranath in 2013 and the landslides caused by the devastating Sikkim earthquake in 2011 are also included in this atlas.
|
Between 1988 and 2022, the maximum number of landslides 12, 385 recorded in Mizoram.
Uttarakhand followed it at 11, 219, Tripura at 8, 070, Arunachal Pradesh at 7, 689, and Jammu and Kashmir at 7,280. Kerala saw 6,039, Manipur 5,494 and Maharashtra recorded 5, 112 incidents of landslides.
|
- Globally, landslides rank third in terms of deaths among natural disasters.
- However, deforestation due to unplanned urbanisation and human greed increases the risk of such incidents.
- In 2006, about 4 million people were affected by landslides, including a large number of Indians.
- India is among the four major countries where the risk of landslides is the highest; it added. If we look at the figures, about 0.42 million square kilometres in the country are prone to landslides, which is 12.6 per cent of the total land area of the country.
- However, the figure does not include snow-covered areas. Around 0.18 million sq km of landslide-prone areas in the country are in North East Himalayas, including Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
- Of the rest, 0.14 million sq km falls in North West Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir); 90, 000 sq km in the Western Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and 10, 000 sq km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku in Andhra Pradesh.
4. Reasons for landslides
- Sudden heavy rains due to climate change are also increasing landslides. Around 73 per cent of landslides in the Himalayan region are attributed to heavy rains and reduced water-absorbing capacity of the soil.
- Global climate change is causing heavy rainfall that erodes steep slopes with loose soil found in a 2020 study by the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi.
- Therefore, the increasing number of landslides can no longer be termed as just natural disasters, as human actions have also played a major role in it.
5. Data On Landslides
- Uttakarkhand, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh reported the highest number of landslides during 1998 – 2022
- Mizoram topped the list, recording 12,385 landslide events in the past 25 years, of which 8,926 were recorded in 2017 alone
- Likewise, 2,071 events of the total 2,132 landslides reported in Nagaland during this period occurred during the 2017 monsoon season
- Manipur, too, showed a similar trend, wherein 4,559 out of 5,494 landslide events were experienced during the rainy season of 2017, Of the total 690, Tamil Nadu suffered 603 landslide events in 2018 alone
- Among all these states, an alarming situation is emerging from Uttarakhand and Kerala
- While Uttarakhand’s fragility was recently exposed during the land subsidence events reported from Joshimath since January, this Himalayan state has experienced the second highest number (11,219) of landslides since 1998, all events since occurring post 2000
- The year-wise number of landslide events in the state is: 2003 (32), 2010 (307), 2012 (473), 2013 (6,610), 2017 (1), 2021 (329) and 2022 (1)
- The number of districts with the maximum landslide exposure are in Arunachal Pradesh (16), Kerala (14), Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir (13 each), Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Maharashtra (11 each), Mizoram (8) and Nagaland (7)
- Kerala has been consistently reporting massive landslides since it suffered the century’s worst floods in 2018
- The year-wise landslide events here are 2018 (5,191), 2019 (756), 2020 (9) and 2021 (29).
- From the events and images obtained, the NRSC ranked Rudraprayag in Uttarakhand at the top of 147 vulnerable districts
- It has the highest landslide density in the country, along with having the highest exposure to total population and number of houses
For Prelims & Mains
| For Prelims: Landslides, climate change, ISRO, Disaster management, National Remote Sensing Centre, Landslide Atlas of India |
Previous year questions
|
1. Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022) 1. These occur only on gentle slopes during rain.
2. They generally occur in clay-rich soil.
3. Earthquakes trigger landslides.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (B) For Mains: 1. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (250 words) (2021)
|
Source: The Down to Earth
ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 1955
1. Context
As the blockade of the Strait of Hormuz exposed the vulnerability of India’s supply chain for cooking gas, the majority of which is imported, the Union government invoked the Essential Commodities Act, 1955. While long-term steps are needed to diversify and reduce reliance on global suppliers and expand strategic reserves, the Act is a crucial emergency tool for now. It allows the Centre to direct refiners to boost domestic LPG production, prioritise household consumption, and regulate the allocation of natural gas.
2. What is the Essential Commodities Act, 1955?
- The Act authorizes the Union government to regulate the production, supply, and distribution of key commodities, such as medicines, fertilizers, food items, edible oils, fuels, and seeds.
- According to Section 3 of the Essential Commodities Act, 1955, the government may issue directives to ensure adequate supply, promote increased production of essential goods, and guarantee their fair distribution so that they remain accessible to the public at reasonable prices.
- It also has the authority to fix prices and stock limits, restrict certain sales, regulate storage, transportation, and distribution, and take measures to curb hoarding and black-marketing.
- In recent years, the Act has been used to address shortages of commodities such as wheat, sugar, and pulses. It was also enforced during the COVID-19 lockdown to curb hoarding, profiteering, and black-market activities involving several essential goods
|
Essential commodities are goods that are necessary for daily life and whose shortage can affect the public. Under the Act, the Central Government can declare any commodity as essential. Common examples include:
|
3. Why is this law invoked now?
- Amid military strikes by the United States and Israel, Iran has responded by launching attacks on oil-producing countries in the Persian Gulf that host U.S. military bases and by targeting vessels passing through the Strait of Hormuz.
- Although nearly one-fifth of the world’s oil trade moves through this strategic maritime route, the immediate concern for Indian consumers has been the potential disruption in the supply of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), commonly used as cooking fuel.
- Government initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana significantly expanded LPG access in India, raising household coverage from around 62% in 2016 to almost universal access today.
- However, domestic production has not grown at the same pace as demand. In 2024–25, Indian refineries produced about 12.8 million metric tonnes of LPG, meeting only around 41% of the country’s annual requirement of 31.3 million tonnes, according to data from the Petroleum Ministry.
- The remaining demand is met through imports, nearly 90% of which pass through the Strait of Hormuz.
- Apart from LPG, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is also used in Indian households through pipeline networks, as well as for transportation and various commercial applications.
- Of India’s daily gas consumption of roughly 189 million metric standard cubic meters, about 52% is produced domestically.
- Meanwhile, approximately one-quarter of the total demand is satisfied through imports from the Persian Gulf
4. How does order affect LPG Production?
- On March 5, the government instructed all oil refineries across India to divert their propane and butane outputs toward LPG production instead of using them for petrochemical manufacturing.
- A follow-up directive issued on March 9 expanded the scope of this order to include oil refineries and petrochemical units located in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
- It further clarified that propylene, butene, and other components from the C3 and C4 hydrocarbon streams must also be utilised solely for LPG production.
- The directive applies not only to public sector refiners such as Indian Oil Corporation, Bharat Petroleum, and Hindustan Petroleum, but also to other entities including Chennai Petroleum Corporation, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, and Numaligarh Refinery Limited.
- In addition, private-sector refiners like Reliance Industries and Nayara Energy have also been brought under this order.
- According to the government, these measures have already boosted domestic LPG production by about 25%. Nevertheless, a significant portion of the country’s demand—roughly half—still needs to be met through imports.
- The directive also mandates that all LPG output be supplied exclusively to Indian Oil Corporation, Bharat Petroleum, and Hindustan Petroleum, which have been instructed to prioritise distribution of cylinders to household consumers.
- As a result, reduced supply to commercial establishments has led several restaurants, hostels, and hotels to temporarily close or scale down their operations
5. Regulation of Natural Gas Supply
- The directive issued on March 9 regarding natural gas does not alter production levels; instead, it introduces a priority-based system for allocating gas supplies, superseding existing contractual arrangements.
- Under this framework, the highest priority is assigned to piped natural gas supplied to households, compressed natural gas used in transportation, gas required for LPG production, and fuel for pipeline compressors.
- These sectors will receive supplies equivalent to 100% of their average consumption during the previous six months, subject to overall availability.
- Fertilizer producers will be allocated about 70% of their usual requirements, although this proportion may be revised if ongoing conflict continues to disrupt supply chains during the kharif sowing season.
- Meanwhile, sectors such as tea processing, manufacturing, and other industries will receive up to 80% of their typical supply.
- Certain petrochemical units operated by Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, GAIL, and Reliance Industries may experience partial or complete reductions in liquefied natural gas (LNG) supplies. Additionally, natural gas allocations to oil refineries are expected to fall to around 65% of their normal consumption levels
|
For Prelims: Essential Commodities, liquefied natural gas (LNG), Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
For Mains: GS II - Policy and Governance
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following statements is/are correct about the Strait of Hormuz?
Select the correct answer using the code below: (a) 1 and 2 only Answer: (a) 2.With reference to Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (b) 3.Consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (c) |
Source: The Hindu
CRBON CAPTURE AND UTILISATION (CCU)
1. Context
Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) refers to a set of technologies that capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial sources or directly from the air and convert them into useful products. This process removes carbon from the atmosphere and puts it into the economy as inputs for fuels, chemicals, building materials, or polymers. Unlike carbon capture and storage, where captured COâ‚‚ is permanently stored underground rather than reused, CCU uses up the captured carbon.
2. What is Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU)?
- Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) is an approach to climate mitigation that focuses on treating carbon dioxide not merely as a waste product, but as a resource.
- In the context of rising global temperatures and increasing industrial emissions, CCU represents an attempt to balance economic development with environmental responsibility.
- When fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas are burned in power plants or used in industries like cement and steel manufacturing, large quantities of carbon dioxide (COâ‚‚) are released into the atmosphere.
- This COâ‚‚ traps heat and contributes to global warming. Carbon Capture and Utilisation seeks to intervene in this process. Instead of allowing the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, it is captured at the source of emission through specialized technologies.
- These technologies separate COâ‚‚ from other gases produced during combustion or industrial processes.
- Once captured, the carbon dioxide is compressed and transported to facilities where it can be put to productive use. This is the key difference between CCU and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).
- While CCS focuses on storing the captured carbon dioxide deep underground in geological formations to prevent its release, CCU aims to convert the captured COâ‚‚ into valuable products.
- The utilisation aspect of CCU can take many forms. Carbon dioxide can be used to manufacture chemicals such as methanol and urea, which are widely used in fertilisers and industry.
- It can also be converted into synthetic fuels, building materials like carbon-infused concrete, and even used in the production of carbonated beverages. In some cases, COâ‚‚ is injected into oil fields to enhance oil recovery.
- By turning emissions into economically useful goods, CCU attempts to create a circular carbon economy, where carbon is reused instead of continuously extracted and emitted.
- The importance of CCU becomes particularly relevant for countries that rely heavily on fossil fuels for energy and industrial growth.
- For example, India, which has significant coal-based power generation, is exploring CCU as part of its broader climate strategy, with policy discussions supported by institutions such as NITI Aayog. For developing economies, CCU offers a transitional pathway: it allows industries to continue operating while reducing their carbon footprint.
- However, CCU is not without challenges. Capturing carbon dioxide requires substantial energy and investment. In some cases, the process itself can be energy-intensive, which may reduce the overall environmental benefit unless powered by renewable energy.
- Moreover, the long-term climate impact depends on how permanently the carbon is locked into products. If COâ‚‚ is used to produce fuels that are later burned, it eventually returns to the atmosphere.
3. Why does India need CCU?
- India needs Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) because of the unique structure of its economy, energy system, and development priorities.
- Unlike many developed countries that have already industrialised and are now transitioning away from fossil fuels, India is still in a growth phase where energy demand, infrastructure expansion, and industrial production are rapidly increasing.
- This creates a complex challenge: how to grow economically while reducing carbon emissions.
- One of the primary reasons India needs CCU is its continued dependence on coal. A large portion of India’s electricity generation comes from coal-based thermal power plants.
- While renewable energy capacity is expanding significantly, coal remains critical for ensuring energy security and meeting base-load power requirements. Completely phasing out coal in the short term is neither economically nor socially feasible.
- CCU provides a transitional solution by capturing carbon emissions from these plants and converting them into useful products, thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint without abruptly disrupting energy supply.
- Another important factor is the nature of India’s industrial emissions. Sectors such as cement, steel, fertilisers, and petrochemicals are considered “hard-to-abate” sectors because their production processes inherently generate carbon dioxide.
- For example, cement manufacturing releases COâ‚‚ not only from fuel combustion but also from chemical reactions in limestone processing.
- In such sectors, switching to renewable energy alone cannot eliminate emissions. CCU offers a technological pathway to manage these unavoidable emissions.
- India’s climate commitments also make CCU strategically important. Under the Paris Agreement, India has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP and achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
- Achieving this target while maintaining high economic growth will require a combination of renewable energy expansion, energy efficiency improvements, green hydrogen, and carbon management technologies like CCU.
- Institutions such as NITI Aayog have recognised CCU as part of India’s long-term decarbonisation strategy.
- Economic considerations further strengthen the case for CCU. By converting captured carbon into products such as methanol, synthetic fuels, construction materials, and chemicals, India can create new industries and green jobs.
- This supports the vision of a circular carbon economy, where waste emissions become raw materials for other sectors. For a country aiming to boost manufacturing under initiatives like Make in India, CCU can align environmental sustainability with industrial competitiveness
4. Where does India Stand today ?
- India has started promoting Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) by extending research support through the Department of Science and Technology, which has developed a dedicated roadmap to guide research and development in this field.
- Additionally, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has released a draft 2030 roadmap for Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS), outlining potential projects where these technologies can be implemented.
- In the private sector, Ambuja Cements, part of the Adani Group, is collaborating with IIT Bombay on an Indo-Swedish pilot initiative aimed at converting captured carbon dioxide into fuels and other value-added materials.
- Similarly, JK Cement is engaged in developing a CCU demonstration facility focused on capturing COâ‚‚ for use in products such as lightweight concrete blocks and olefins.
- Expanding beyond the cement industry, Organic Recycling Systems Limited (ORSL) is spearheading India’s first pilot-scale Bio-CCU platform, which transforms carbon dioxide derived from biogas streams into bio-alcohols and specialised chemical products
5. Global Scenario
- The European Union’s Bioeconomy Strategy and its Circular Economy Action Plan clearly endorse CCU as an approach to transform carbon dioxide into raw materials for fuels, chemicals, and other industrial products, aligning the technology with broader sustainability and circular economy objectives.
- In the industrial sector, ArcelorMittal and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. have partnered with the climate technology firm D-CRBN to test an innovative process at ArcelorMittal’s facility in Ghent, Belgium.
- This initiative focuses on converting captured COâ‚‚ into carbon monoxide, which can then be reused in steelmaking and chemical manufacturing.
- In the United States, the expansion of CCU technologies is supported through a mix of fiscal incentives, including tax credits and government funding, especially for projects producing fuels and chemicals derived from carbon dioxide.
- Meanwhile, in the United Arab Emirates, the Al Reyadah project and proposed COâ‚‚-to-chemicals clusters are integrating CCU solutions with green hydrogen to advance low-carbon industrial development
6. Way Forward
The primary challenge in expanding CCU in India relates to economic viability. The processes involved in capturing, refining, and converting carbon dioxide demand significant energy and financial investment. In the absence of supportive policy measures or incentives, products manufactured using captured COâ‚‚ may find it difficult to compete with conventional, fossil-fuel-based alternatives that are currently more affordable.
Another major concern is the state of infrastructure. Effective deployment of CCU depends on the presence of well-developed industrial clusters, efficient systems for transporting captured COâ‚‚, and seamless integration with downstream manufacturing units. However, such integrated ecosystems are not uniformly available across India’s industrial landscape.
In addition, the lack of well-defined regulatory standards, certification mechanisms, and stable market signals generates uncertainty for investors. This uncertainty can dampen private sector participation and restrict market demand for products derived from captured carbon.
That said, India has made encouraging progress by formulating strategic roadmaps for the advancement of CCU technologies. The successful and timely implementation of these plans will be crucial in ensuring that CCU contributes meaningfully to the country’s broader climate and industrial objectives
|
For Prelims: Carbon Capturing, COP21, Paris Agreement, carbon cycle
For Mains:
1. What is Carbon farming? discuss the effective techniques within carbon farming for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and explain the challenges that exist in implementing them, particularly in developing countries like India. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements (UPSC 2020)
1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of the human body.
3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2019)
A. Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species.
B. Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories.
C. A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.
D. Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes
3. Consider the following statements (upsc 2016)
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome
2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2
4. LPG stands for (MPSC 2017)
A. Liquidity, Profitability and Growth
B. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Growth
C. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation
D.None of the above
5. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was launched (RRC Group D 2018)
A. July 2017 B. January 2018 C. May 2014 D. May 2016
6. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.
4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 only C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 2 only
Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-D, 6-B
|
Source: The Hindu
