The decision to ease foreign direct investment norms for overseas companies with up to 10% stake in Chinese companies will be notified soon under the FEMA law, a senior government official said on Thursday. After that, the changes will come into effect

2.Foreign Exchange Management Act(FEMA)

The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) is an important piece of legislation in India that governs foreign exchange and payments.

Here is an overview of FEMA and its history:

FEMA replaced the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973. FERA was considered stringent and primarily aimed at controlling and regulating foreign exchange in India. However, it was felt that the economic environment required a more liberalized and contemporary approach

FEMA was introduced in 1999 to replace FERA, aligning with the economic reforms and liberalization measures undertaken by the Indian government in the early 1990s. The primary objective was to promote external trade and payments and to facilitate foreign investment in India.

3.Key Features of FEMA

• FEMA brought about a more liberalized approach compared to its predecessor. It aimed to simplify and rationalize foreign exchange management, making it more conducive for foreign trade and investment
• FEMA distinguishes between current account transactions (related to trade in goods, services, and short-term financial transactions) and capital account transactions (related to long-term investments and capital movements)
• FEMA provides a comprehensive regulatory framework for foreign exchange transactions and seeks to manage and regulate various aspects, including dealings in foreign exchange, export and import of currency, and opening and maintenance of foreign currency accounts
• The act empowers the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to regulate foreign exchange transactions. It also prescribes penalties for contravention of its provisions to ensure compliance.
• FEMA establishes adjudicating authorities to hear cases related to violations. It also provides for the establishment of the Foreign Exchange Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals against the orders of the adjudicating authorities
• Since its enactment, FEMA has undergone several amendments to keep pace with changing economic scenarios and to address emerging challenges. Amendments have been made to enhance regulatory measures, facilitate ease of doing business, and align with international best practices

• One of the primary objectives of FEMA is to liberalize and facilitate foreign exchange transactions. It aims to simplify procedures and create a conducive environment for foreign trade and investment
• FEMA seeks to promote external trade and payments by providing a regulatory framework that governs the flow of foreign exchange in and out of the country. This includes facilitating imports and exports of goods and services
• FEMA is designed to encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign portfolio investment (FPI) by providing a transparent and predictable regulatory environment. The act lays down the rules and regulations governing the acquisition and transfer of immovable property by non-residents
• FEMA empowers the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to manage and regulate the country's foreign exchange reserves effectively. This involves maintaining stability in the foreign exchange market and ensuring the availability of adequate reserves to meet external obligations
• FEMA distinguishes between current account transactions (related to day-to-day trade in goods, services, and short-term financial transactions) and capital account transactions (related to long-term investments and capital movements). This helps in applying appropriate regulations to different types of transactions
• The act aims to establish a robust adjudication and enforcement mechanism to ensure compliance with its provisions. It provides for penalties and adjudicating authorities to address violations and maintain the integrity of the foreign exchange management system
• FEMA is designed to align with international best practices in the field of foreign exchange management. This alignment is essential for integrating India into the global economy and ensuring compatibility with international norms and standards
• The act allows for amendments to be made to its provisions to adapt to changing economic conditions and emerging challenges. This ensures that the regulatory framework remains relevant and effective in a dynamic global economic environment.

The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) in India has a wide applicability, covering various individuals, entities, and transactions involved in foreign exchange dealings. Here's a breakdown of its applicability:

• Residents and Non-Residents: FEMA applies to both residents and non-residents of India. Residents are individuals or entities ordinarily resident in India, while non-residents are those residing outside India.

• Indian Entities: Indian entities, including companies, partnerships, trusts, and other forms of organizations, are subject to FEMA regulations concerning foreign exchange transactions.

• Foreign Entities: Foreign entities, including companies, branches, subsidiaries, and other organizations, are also subject to FEMA regulations when conducting transactions involving Indian currency or assets in India.

• Foreign Exchange Transactions: FEMA governs various foreign exchange transactions, including the acquisition and transfer of foreign exchange, remittances, import and export of goods and services, external commercial borrowings, and investments in India by non-residents.

• Current and Capital Account Transactions: FEMA distinguishes between current account transactions and capital account transactions. Current account transactions include day-to-day trade in goods and services, while capital account transactions involve long-term investments and capital movements. FEMA applies different regulations to these types of transactions.

• Authorized Persons: FEMA designates certain individuals and entities as authorized persons, such as authorized dealers, authorized banks, and other financial institutions. These authorized persons play a crucial role in facilitating foreign exchange transactions and are responsible for complying with FEMA regulations.

• Regulatory Authorities: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the primary regulatory authority responsible for administering FEMA and enforcing its provisions. The RBI issues regulations, notifications, and guidelines to ensure compliance with FEMA requirements.

• Penalties and Enforcement: FEMA establishes penalties for contravention of its provisions, including fines, confiscation of assets, and imprisonment. Adjudicating authorities and appellate tribunals are designated to hear cases related to violations and enforce compliance with FEMA regulations.

6.Categories of Authorised Persons under FEMA

 

Category	Description	Examples
Authorized Dealers (ADs)	Broadest category, authorized for a wide range of forex transactions.	State banks, commercial banks, co-operative banks, foreign banks.
Full-Fledged Money Changers (FFMCs)	Authorized to buy and sell foreign currency notes, travelers' cheques and foreign currency instruments.	Money exchange companies, authorized hotels.
Authorised Money Changers (AMCs)	Limited scope compared to FFMCs, can only buy and sell foreign currency notes and travelers' cheques.	Small money exchange booths, airport counters.
Authorized Banks	Specific banks authorized for limited forex transactions, like specific export-import transactions.	Export houses, financial institutions engaged in specific foreign exchange activities.

 

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which one of the following groups of items is included in India’s foreign-exchange reserves? (UPSC CSE 2013) (a) Foreign-currency assets, Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and loans from foreign countries (b) Foreign-currency assets, gold holdings of the RBI and SDRs (c) Foreign-currency assets, loans from the World Bank and SDRs (d) Foreign-currency assets, gold holdings of the RBI and loans from the World Bank Answer: (b) Mains   1.Discuss how emerging technologies and globalisation contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels. (2021)

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

DELIMITATION AND PARLIAMENT SEATS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Union government had introduced the Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill to increase the maximum number of Lok Sabha seats from the existing 550 to 850. It had also introduced a Bill to set up the Delimitation Commission in 2026. However, the Constitution Amendment Bill was defeated in the Lok Sabha, and thereafter, the Delimitation Bill was withdrawn by the government.

 

 

2. What is the Delimitation Exercise?

 

 

• Delimitation is the exercise of determining both the number of seats and the territorial boundaries of constituencies for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
• It is undertaken by a Delimitation Commission constituted under a law enacted by Parliament. In the past, this process has been carried out using data from the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses.
• Based on the 1971 Census, when India’s population stood at about 54.8 crore, the strength of the Lok Sabha was fixed at 543 seats.
• This figure has since been kept unchanged to promote population stabilisation efforts. Under existing constitutional provisions, a fresh readjustment is scheduled to take place after the Census to be conducted in 2027.
• Further, in 2023, Parliament enacted the 106th Constitutional Amendment, which mandates reservation of one-third of seats for women in both the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
• This reservation is to be implemented following the delimitation exercise based on the next Census

 

3. 131st Amendment

 

• The 131st Constitutional Amendment Bill sought to introduce three major changes. First, it proposed raising the upper limit of Lok Sabha seats from 550 to 850. Second, it aimed to authorize Parliament to decide which Census would serve as the basis for delimitation.
• Third, it intended to separate the provision of one-third reservation for women from the forthcoming 2027 Census, allowing it instead to be implemented through delimitation using data from the last published Census of 2011.
• The Delimitation Bill, 2026, envisaged the periodic establishment of a Delimitation Commission by the Union government. This body would be responsible for distributing Lok Sabha seats among States and Union Territories according to the most recent Census data.
• If the Bill had been enacted and a Commission formed immediately, the seat allocation would have relied on figures from the 2011 Census

 

4. Issues and Criticism of the bill

 

• The government maintained that expanding the strength of the Lok Sabha by roughly 50%—from 543 to 816 seats—would facilitate smooth implementation of one-third reservation for women in a larger House. This would have meant reserving about 272 seats for women.
• However, the Opposition voiced several concerns. First, it argued that women’s reservation need not be tied to the delimitation exercise, since the 106th Constitutional Amendment of 2023 already permits one-third reservation within the existing 543 seats.
• Second, the proposed Bills did not clearly ensure a proportional 50% increase in seats for every State and Union Territory; instead, the Delimitation Bill suggested that seat allocation would depend on population figures from the latest Census.
• Third, the Opposition emphasized that an issue of such significance and sensitivity requires thorough deliberation and should not be hurried through during a short parliamentary session

 

5. Way Forward

Democracy signifies governance by the people, where representatives are chosen on the foundational principle of “one citizen–one vote–one value.” However, this principle was moderated in 1976, when delimitation was frozen on the basis of the 1971 Census to support population control efforts. In a federal system like India’s, any future delimitation exercise must account for the uneven population growth among different States.

Article 81(2) of the Constitution states that, as far as possible, the ratio of seats to population should remain uniform across States. While a proportional 50% increase in seats may serve as a compromise between democratic representation and federal balance, it would be prudent to examine such a proposal more thoroughly through parliamentary committee deliberations. At the same time, a pressing reform in India’s democratic framework is the strengthening of local self-governments, such as Panchayats and Municipalities, which interact closely with citizens in their everyday lives

 

 

For Prelims: Delimitation, Census, Covid-19 Pandemic, Article 82,  Article 170 For Mains:  1. Critically analyze the potential conflict between the principle of "one citizen-one vote" and the freezing of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 Census in the context of delimitation. Discuss how this can impact federalism and representation in India. (250 Words) 2. How can the delimitation exercise be conducted in a manner that fosters national integration and strengthens the federal structure of India? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.  With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012) 1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law. 2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only             B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2   2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019) A.  Bamboo Industry B. Petroleum Production C. Cottage Industries D. Tea Cultivation   3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019) A. Sugarcane           B.  Jute            C. Tea                    D. Cotton   4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies. 2. In 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only           B.  2 only          C. 1 and 3             D. 2 and 3     5. The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to  (UPSC 2015)  A. protect the interests of the Scheduled Tribes B. determine  the boundaries between States C. determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats D. protect the interests of all the border States   Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A

Source: The Hindu

 

COMPOSITE BACKWARDNESS INDEX (CBI)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Poor General Caste children access private education eight times more than equally poor SC and ST children. Pick four equally poor households from each broad caste group, and the gap in their CBI scores mirrors that of four richer households from each.

 

 

2. What is the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)?

 

 

• The Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) is a method used by governments and expert committees to identify how socially, educationally, and economically disadvantaged a particular community or group is when compared to the rest of society.
• Instead of looking at only one factor such as income or literacy, the index combines several indicators together to measure “backwardness” in a more comprehensive way. That is why it is called a composite index.
• In India, the idea of such an index became important mainly in the context of identifying Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs) for reservation policies and welfare measures.
• Different commissions and state governments have used versions of a backwardness index to determine which communities require special support under the constitutional principle of social justice.
• The basic logic behind the CBI is that backwardness is not caused by a single problem. A community may suffer from low literacy, poor representation in government jobs, lack of land ownership, low income levels, inadequate housing, poor access to education, social discrimination, or low participation in professional occupations.
• If only one indicator is used, the real condition of the community may not be fully understood. Therefore, the index combines multiple indicators and assigns weightage to them.
• Each indicator is given marks or weightage. After calculating the total score, communities with higher backwardness scores are identified as more disadvantaged

 

For example, a backwardness index may include factors such as: literacy rate, school dropout levels, representation in higher education, access to government employment, landholding patterns, housing conditions, poverty levels, occupation patterns, and social status within the caste hierarchy.

 

 

3. Mandal Commission

 

 

• One of the most well-known uses of such an approach in India was by the Mandal Commission (Second Backward Classes Commission) established in 1979 under the chairmanship of B.P. Mandal.
• The commission developed a method to identify Other Backward Classes (OBCs) using social, educational, and economic indicators. It used multiple criteria and assigned points to determine the relative backwardness of communities.
• This became the basis for extending reservation benefits to OBCs in central government jobs and educational institutions.
• The importance of the Composite Backwardness Index lies in making welfare policies more evidence-based and objective. Rather than relying only on political demands or historical perceptions, the index attempts to scientifically measure deprivation.
• It also helps governments prioritize development schemes and affirmative action policies for communities that genuinely need support.
• However, the CBI is not free from criticism. Some scholars argue that backwardness cannot be fully captured through numerical indicators because social discrimination and historical exclusion are complex realities.
• Others argue that the data used for calculating the index may become outdated over time, especially since caste-wise socio-economic data in India is limited.
• There are also debates about the weightage given to different indicators and whether economic criteria should receive greater importance than caste-based disadvantages.
• Despite these debates, the Composite Backwardness Index remains an important tool in India’s social justice framework because it provides a structured mechanism to identify disadvantaged groups and support inclusive development

 

4. Telangana's Caste and Socio-Economic Survey

 

 

• A caste and socio-economic survey carried out in Telangana has highlighted deep disparities among various communities in the state. The findings, prepared by the Independent Expert Working Group on Telangana’s Socio, Economic, Educational, Employment, Political and Caste (SEEEPC) Survey, were made public on April 15. The survey itself was undertaken in 2024.
• According to the report, Backward Classes (BCs), excluding Muslim minorities, represent the largest social category in the state, accounting for 46.3% of the population. When combined with Scheduled Castes (17.4%) and Scheduled Tribes (10.4%), these groups together constitute 74.1% of Telangana’s population. Muslim minorities account for 12.6%, while Other Castes comprise 13.3%.
• Even though BCs, SCs, and STs form a majority, the survey revealed that 135 communities — including 69 BC castes, 41 SC groups, and 25 ST communities — remain more disadvantaged than earlier estimates suggested.
• In contrast, the OC category, despite making up only 13.3% of the population, enjoys a dominant presence in private-sector employment and higher education, receives comparatively better salaries, occupies larger houses, and generally experiences a superior standard of living.
• Since Telangana was formed as a separate state in June 2014, the government has made substantial investments in the education sector, with a strong emphasis on expanding English-medium learning.
• Programmes such as Mana Vooru Mana Badi focused on improving school infrastructure, introducing digital classrooms with English-medium instruction, and providing essential facilities like toilets and safe drinking water. Teacher training initiatives were also strengthened.
• These measures have led to a major generational transformation over the last decade. Among individuals in the 6–29 age group, 60.5% are now studying in English-medium institutions, whereas 35.3% continue to receive education in Telugu medium. This shift is especially visible in urban centres and among economically better-off sections of society

 

5. Statistics in the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)

 

 

• Several states have argued that representation in Parliament should not be determined solely by population figures, but should also take into account a state’s contribution to the national economy.
• In a similar manner, social justice policies may need to consider the actual extent of backwardness experienced by a caste, rather than relying only on its numerical strength. While economic contribution can be quantified relatively easily, assessing the degree of caste-based backwardness is far more complex.
• To address this challenge, an independent expert panel appointed by the Government of Telangana designed an evidence-based framework known as the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) to scientifically assess the relative backwardness of different caste groups.
• The framework evaluated 242 caste communities using data collected from nearly 35 million individuals through the caste survey, with each individual mapped across 75 categories of information.
• Since backwardness is a relative social condition, the index seeks to compare whether one community is placed at a greater disadvantage than another. The broader objective of social justice, therefore, is to enable historically marginalised groups to bridge these inequalities.
• Under this methodology, all 242 castes — comprising 133 BCs, 59 SCs, 32 STs, and 18 General category groups — were assessed on 42 diverse indicators.
• These included factors such as dependence on daily wage labour, access to English-medium education, availability of toilets, ownership of irrigated land, and experiences of discrimination at religious places.
• Based on these indicators, a relative backwardness score was calculated using quartile distribution techniques.
• The study is far more detailed than the framework used by the Mandal Commission in its 1980 report, which relied on only 11 indicators.
• The findings statistically confirm long-standing social observations: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are nearly three times more backward than General category groups, while Backward Classes are about 2.7 times more disadvantaged.
• The report also demonstrates that levels of deprivation vary significantly even among historically oppressed communities, providing measurable and scientific validation for these differences.
• Within the 133 BC communities studied, 69 were found to be more backward than the state average, whereas 64 performed relatively better. Among Scheduled Castes, 18 out of 59 communities were placed above the state average, while seven of the 32 Scheduled Tribe groups were similarly better positioned.
• However, these comparatively advanced groups constitute only a very small share of their overall populations. In population terms, around 99% of STs, 97% of SCs, and 71% of BCs continue to remain more backward than the state average.
•  The report further concludes that access to English-medium and private education has emerged as the strongest factor influencing social advancement, outweighing even land or asset ownership.
• Communities such as Gouds, Goldsmiths, and Christians may possess limited land resources, yet perform better because of stronger access to private education.
• In contrast, groups like the Lambadi tribes, along with Mudiraj and Valmiki communities, may own relatively larger areas of irrigated land but still remain socially disadvantaged due to weaker educational access.
• The findings underline that backwardness is shaped by multiple interconnected factors, including birth-based inequalities, regional conditions, and overall living standards

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance   For Mains: General Studies I: population and associated issues and Social empowerment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment. (2024) 2.Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static? (2023) 3.“Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (2018)

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

BRICS

 

1. Context

With opinion divided within the BRICS grouping on the US-Israel war on Iran, a consensus was elusive and Delhi issued a Chair’s summary on Friday and said that “members expressed deep concern on the recent conflict in the Middle East [West Asia] and offered views and assessments on the matter”

2. BRICS

• The BRICS alliance, composed of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, has evolved from an economic consortium to a multifaceted geopolitical force.
• Emerging economies with considerable potential, these countries together form a collective that challenges traditional power dynamics and fosters cooperation in an increasingly interconnected world.

Formation and Evolution

• BRICS was officially established in 2006, with the objective of fostering economic growth, development, and cooperation among member nations.
• Over time, it has transformed into a platform for addressing a broader spectrum of global challenges, encompassing political, security, and social concerns alongside economic issues.

3.Push back against liberal international order 

 

• A core principle in international relations is the absence of a central global authority. While nations may come to agreements on certain rules, there’s no global body with the power to universally enforce them. Scholars often refer to this as an “anarchic system”—not because it's chaotic, but because there is no supreme governing structure overseeing international conduct.
• States primarily pursue their national interests. Although collaboration between countries is possible, it tends to be unstable. Power dynamics are crucial—stronger nations usually assert their will, while weaker ones often have limited choices, echoing themes from the Melian Dialogue in Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War. Global power is unevenly shared, and those who hold more influence often shape international norms to benefit themselves.
• Following World War II, the Western powers—led by the United States—established the liberal international order. This system, built through institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO, mirrored Western ideals such as market liberalism, democratic governance, and the central role of the US dollar in global finance.
• This framework functioned effectively for the Western world for decades. However, in the current century, many countries are beginning to question the relevance of a system rooted in the post-1945 era.
• While rising nations like China, India, Brazil, and South Africa once accepted this order, they are now challenging it due to shifting economic power and the emergence of a multipolar world. The BRICS group has become the most prominent symbol of this growing resistance

4. De-dollarisation and global power shift 

 

• One of the strongest themes to emerge from the BRICS summit in Brazil was the push toward de-dollarisation. While the term may sound technical, its implications are heavily political.
• This concept has been gaining momentum over the years, but recent developments—particularly the use of financial systems as tools for sanctions—have made it more urgent. Currently, global trade and finance rely heavily on the US dollar.
• For example, India typically pays in dollars when importing oil from Russia, Brazil often borrows in dollars, and China's overseas investments usually pass through dollar-based networks like SWIFT. This entrenched dependence grants the US both economic power and political influence.
• During the Brazil summit, BRICS nations revisited the proposal of creating a common currency—not as an immediate goal, but as a statement of direction. In the short term, they are encouraging trade using their own national currencies.
• Russia and China now conduct the majority of their bilateral trade in roubles and yuan. India has started settling some payments with countries like Iran and Sri Lanka in rupees, and has begun conducting oil transactions with the UAE in rupees and dirhams.
• The New Development Bank, established by BRICS, is also moving toward issuing loans in local currencies to minimize reliance on the dollar. This shift is not just about cutting transaction fees—it's about gaining independence from a financial system that many nations in the Global South feel is skewed against their interests.
• The path toward de-dollarisation will be challenging. The US dollar continues to dominate global finance due to its stability, global trust, and the strength of America’s financial infrastructure.
• However, the repeated calls by BRICS for alternatives reflect a growing dissatisfaction. While this transition won’t happen quickly, the direction is clear: reduce dependency on a system largely controlled by Washington

5. South-South Cooperation

 

• BRICS positions itself as a collective voice for nations that were excluded from shaping the global order established after World War II. It portrays itself as an advocate for the Global South, promoting equitable development, more inclusive trade frameworks, and the restructuring of major international institutions.
• Unlike the IMF or World Bank, the New Development Bank (NDB) provides financing without the usual political conditions. BRICS members are also collaborating on joint ventures in sectors like infrastructure and renewable energy.
• There have also been discussions about setting up a BRICS-led credit rating agency to reduce reliance on dominant Western agencies. The group consistently calls for changes to institutions such as the UN Security Council and the World Bank, aiming to amplify the influence of emerging economies.
• Within BRICS, countries like Brazil, India, and South Africa act as intermediaries. As democratic nations with expanding economies, they are often seen as relatable leaders among developing states.
• China contributes significant financial resources and geopolitical clout, while Russia, increasingly distanced from Western alliances, is seeking closer ties with non-Western countries.
• This drive to create new systems and mechanisms stems from a common dissatisfaction with a global order that many feel does not account for the realities and needs of the developing world. BRICS is not only advocating for policy reforms but also striving to reshape global perceptions of development and leadership

6. Geopolitical Relevance

• Counterbalance to Western Influence: BRICS serves as a counterweight to the dominance of Western powers. The coalition's diverse representation from different regions empowers non-Western countries to assert their interests on the global stage.
• Global South Unity: BRICS resonates with many countries in the Global South that seek a voice in international affairs. It presents an alternative to the traditional Western-dominated institutions, offering a platform for collaboration and advocacy.

7. Economic Cooperation and Growth

• Economic Powerhouses: Collectively, BRICS nations account for a substantial portion of the world's population and GDP. Their economic potential has led to discussions on reforming global financial institutions to better reflect contemporary realities.
• Intra-BRICS Trade: Trade among BRICS members has grown significantly. Initiatives like the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) bolster financial cooperation and stability within the group.

8. Geopolitical Challenges and Opportunities

• Diverse Interests: As BRICS expands and diversifies, differing geopolitical interests may arise, potentially leading to internal divisions. However, this diversity also presents opportunities for creative solutions to global challenges.
• Diplomatic Outreach: BRICS engages with other regional and international organizations, strengthening its influence. The expansion of the group's membership underscores its growing geopolitical relevance.

9. India's Role and Beyond

• India's Diplomacy: India has played an active role within BRICS, emphasizing issues such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and climate change. Its strategic partnerships contribute to the coalition's expansion and its influence in shaping its direction.
• Global Impact: BRICS expansion into a broader coalition incorporating West Asian countries like Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE signifies a deliberate shift towards greater global political relevance. This expansion highlights BRICS' adaptability to changing geopolitical dynamics.

10. BRICS New Members Dynamics

• Unanimous Decisions: BRICS decisions require unanimous agreement, reflecting collective decision-making.
• Geopolitical Partnerships: While Russia and China confront West-related challenges, Brazil, South Africa, and India maintain significant partnerships with the US and Europe.
• China's Expansion Drive: China spearheads BRICS expansion, prioritizing membership growth.
• Inclusion of Iran: China and Russia's influence is seen in Iran's inclusion, showcasing their collaboration.
• Mediation Efforts: China's role reconciles rivals Saudi Arabia and Iran within the alliance.
• Saudi Arabia's Shift: Saudi Arabia's entry signifies a move towards an independent foreign policy, diverging from the US alliance.
• Global Significance for Russia and Iran: BRICS membership elevates Russia and Iran's global partnerships, challenging Western dominance.

11. Implications for India

• Strategic Role: India played a lead role in drafting BRICS membership criteria, demonstrating its strategic influence within the alliance.
• Expanded Influence: The inclusion of new members who are strategic partners of India enhances its influence within BRICS.
• Geopolitical Balancing: BRICS expansion allows India to navigate between its ties with the West and its position within this non-Western coalition.
• Global Advocacy: With more representation and diverse members, India can push for UN reforms and increased Global South representation.
• Diplomatic Challenges: India might need to exert more effort to assert its influence in an alliance with a wider range of members and potential competing interests.
• Economic Opportunities: Collaboration with economically strong members like China can lead to enhanced trade and investment prospects for India.

For Prelims: BRICS, Global South Unity, Western Influence, New Development Bank (NDB), and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA). For Mains: 1. Discuss the Implications of BRICS' Expansion for India's Geopolitical Positioning and Influence within the Alliance. 2. Analyze India's Role in Shaping BRICS' Membership Criteria and Its Strategic Significance in the Expanded Coalition.

 

Previous year Questions 1. With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009. 2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B   2. With reference to BRIC countries, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010) 1. At present, China's GDP is more than the combined GDP of all three other countries. 2. China's population is more than the combined population of any two other countries. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: A   3. The 'Fortaleza Declaration', recently in the news, is related to the affairs of  (UPSC 2015) A. ASEAN B. BRICS C. OECD D. WTO Answer: B

Source: The Hindu

 

 

STUBBLE BURNING

 

1. Context

Madhya Pradesh reported 25,144 incidents of stubble burning between April 1 and 23, highest in the country, official data showed on Friday

2. What is Stubble?

Stubble refers to the leftover plant material, mainly crop residues, that remains in the field after the primary crop has been harvested. This includes the stems, leaves, and other organic material that is left behind.

Stubble burning is a common agricultural practice where farmers set fire to crop residues, such as straw and stubble, that remain in the field after the main crop (usually paddy or wheat) has been harvested. This practice is typically used as a quick and cost-effective method to clear the field for the next planting season. Stubble burning is particularly prevalent in regions with mechanized farming, where machines like combine harvesters leave behind a significant amount of crop residues.

3. Stubble burning contributes to air pollution

When stubble is burned, it releases a variety of pollutants into the air, including particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants can cause several health problems, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.

Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. In India, for example, stubble burning is responsible for up to 30% of the air pollution in Delhi during the winter months.

• Stubble burning generates fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) that can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to respiratory problems and reduced air quality.
• The combustion of stubble releases carbon monoxide, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled, particularly in enclosed spaces.
• Stubble burning produces Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which can react with other pollutants in the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major air pollutant.
• Burning stubble emits greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), contributing to climate change.
• The combustion of crop residues can release various hazardous chemicals and pollutants, further deteriorating air quality.

4. About the Central Scheme for the Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue

The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) is a scheme launched by the Government of India to promote the use of in-situ techniques for managing crop residue. In-situ techniques are those that are used to manage crop residue on the field, rather than burning it. Examples of in-situ techniques include:

• Mulching is the practice of covering the soil with a layer of organic material, such as straw or leaves. This can help to suppress weeds, retain moisture, and improve soil health.
• Zero tillage is the practice of planting crops without tilling the soil. This can help to prevent soil erosion and retain moisture in the soil.
• Direct seeding is the practice of planting seeds directly into the soil, rather than transplanting seedlings. This can help to reduce soil disturbance and prevent the spread of weeds.

The AMICMR scheme provides financial assistance to farmers to purchase machinery that can be used for in-situ management of crop residue. The scheme also provides training and extension services to farmers on how to use these techniques.

The AMICMR scheme is a promising initiative that could help to reduce air pollution caused by stubble burning. However, the scheme needs to be scaled up and made more widely available to farmers to have a significant impact.

5. Conclusion

Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. However, there are several alternatives to stubble burning, such as in-situ management of crop residue. In-situ management of crop residue is a more sustainable way to manage stubble, as it does not release pollutants into the air and has several benefits for soil health and crop yields.

For Prelims: Stubble burning, air pollution, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, PM2.5, PM10, Volatile Organic Compounds, ozone, carbon dioxide, methane, Climate Change, The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue,  For Mains:  1. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) in addressing the issue of stubble burning in India. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? ( UPSC 2016) Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Sulfur dioxide Methane Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only     (c) 1, 4 and 5 only         (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5  Answer: B 2. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen (b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide (c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide (d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide  Answer:D 3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions Answer: C 4. Consider the following: (UPSC 2019)  1. Carbon monooxide 2. Methane 3. Ozone 4. Sulphur dioxide Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?  A. 1 and 2 only         B.  2, 3 and 4 only            C. 1 and 4 only         D.  1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D 5. What is Particulate matter? (BPSC 2016) A. Solid residue      B. Air pollutant        C. Water pollutant   D. Soil pollutant E.  None of the above/More than one of the above Answer: B 6. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas because it: (OPSC OAS 2021) A. Binds to digestive hormones B. Damages lungs C. Destroys RBCs D. Binds to haemoglobin Answer: D 7. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment. 2. Cattle release ammonia into environment. 3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 3 only         B. 2 and 3 only          C. 2 only            D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 8. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)  1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³. 2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. 3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1, 3 and 4             B. 1 and 4 only           C. 2, 3 and 4           D.1 and 2 only Answer: B 9. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam Sub Engineer Mechanical 2022) A. Toulene        B. Water       C. Carbon dioxide         D. Carbon monoxide Answer: A 10. Which of the following Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from anthropogenic sources only? (UGC NET 2023) A. Isoprene        B. Benzene            C. Terpene          D. Methane        E. Toluene 1. A, B and C Only         2.  B and E Only      3. A and C Only         4. C, D and E Only Answer: 2 11. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-depleting substance? (UPSC 2015)  A. Bretton Woods Conference  B. Montreal Protocol  C. Kyoto Porotocol  D. Nagoya Protocol Answer: B 12. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012)  A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation C. all the solar radiations D. the infrared part of the solar radiation Answer: D 13. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? (UPSC 2014) 1. Volcanic action 2. Respiration 3. Photosynthesis 4. The decay of organic matter Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only       B. 2 only      C. 1, 2 and 4 only         D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: C 14. Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate'? (UPSC 2019)  1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits. 2. Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor. 3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only     B.  2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 15. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called 'coalbed methane' and 'shale gas' consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks. 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources have been found. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only        B. 2 only        C. Both 1 and 2          D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: D Mains 1. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? ( UPSC 2021)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

PERIODIC LABOUR FORCE SURVEY (PLFS)

 

 

1. Context

The informal workforce constitutes around 90% of India’s total employment. In urban areas, according to Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), regular wage or salaried employment remains low, which means that a vast majority of the workforce operates in informal roles.

2. About The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is a sample survey conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) of India to provide information on the labour force and employment situation in the country.
• The survey is conducted annually in all the states and union territories of India.
• The PLFS provides data on various employment indicators, including the labour force participation rate (LFPR), unemployment rate (UR), worker population ratio (WPR), and employment by industry and occupation.
• The PLFS sheds light on the proportion of individuals seeking employment, the unemployment rate, gender disparities in employment and wages, and the sectoral distribution of workers.
• Additionally, it details the types of employment, such as casual labour, self-employment, and regular salaried jobs.
• This comprehensive data is crucial for understanding the dynamics of the Indian labour market and formulating effective employment strategies.

 

3. Data Collection Methods in PLFS

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) collects employment data using two methods: Usual Status (US) and Current Weekly Status (CWS).
• In the US method, respondents are asked to recall their employment details for the past year, while in the CWS method, they are asked to recall their employment details for the past week.
• The labour force estimate derived from the US method includes individuals who worked or were seeking/available for work for a significant portion of the past year, as well as those who worked for at least 30 days during the reference period.
• Conversely, the labour force estimate based on the CWS method encompasses those who worked for at least one hour or sought/were available for work for at least one hour on any day during the past week.
• The global trend has shifted towards a greater emphasis on CWS data due to the improved accuracy of recall for shorter reference periods. 

4. Latest findings of the Report

Unemployment Rate (UER)

• The UER is often the most talked about metric in popular discourse. Simply put, it refers to the proportion of people who demanded work over the past year and failed to get it.
• As the data in Table 1 shows, for the population above 15 years of age, the UER has fallen significantly from 6.6% to 5.1% over the last year (that is, July to June cycle).
• Simply put, 5.1% of all the people above 15 years of age who demanded work failed to get one. 

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

• The Unemployment Rate (UER) is calculated as a proportion of the population that is demanding work.
• However, this population also fluctuates for various reasons. The Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is a measure of the total population demanding work, expressed as a proportion of the total population above 15 years of age.
• As seen in Table 1, India's LFPR, which had been gradually increasing, has experienced a significant surge in the past year.
• As of 2022-23, 54.6% of all Indians above the age of 15 were actively seeking employment.

 

LFPR for women

• This metric looks at LFPR among women to ascertain where the additional demand for jobs is coming from.
• The data shows that female LFPR has gone up over the years but there were two discrete step-ups one in 2019-20 (when India’s GDP growth rate had slowed down to less than 4% and this was before the Covid pandemic hit) and the second in 2022-23 when it rose to 31.6%.

Worker Population Rate

• Since the proportion of people demanding work (the LFPR) goes up and down and the percentage of those failing to get a job (the UER) is expressed as a proportion of the former, it can throw off analysis.
• As such, there is another way to look at the labour market: Worker Population Ratio (WPR).
• The WPR is the percentage of persons employed among the persons in the population.
• Thus, instead of looking at how many demand a job and how many fail to get it, the WPR simply gives a measure of how many people have a job as a proportion of the total population.
• This metric too has been going up and especially noteworthy are the two discrete
  step-ups in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

WPR among women

This metric throws light on the WPR for women to understand what’s leading to the spike in overall WPR. Again, the WPR for women has been going up but two main spikes have been in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

Monthly earnings

The PLFS reports also provide a sense of how much people earn in different types of jobs.

While it is true that incomes have broadly gone up after falling during Covid the main takeaway from this data emerges when one compares how little have monthly incomes changed over the past 6 years, especially in the face of a sharp rise in inflation. To be sure, since late 2019, annual consumer inflation has always been above the RBI’s target of 4%.

 

Distribution of workers

To accurately make sense of more and more people working, it is important to know not just what they earn but also what kind of work they do. For this, we look at data collected over the usual status by PLFS. Table 3 alongside gives the details of the three main classifications: self-employment, casual labour (say a construction worker) and regular salaried job. Self-employed has two sub-categories:

(i) own account worker and employer and

(ii) unpaid helper in household enterprises. 

 

The data shows that self-employment has risen and jobs in the other two categories have fallen in proportion. It is also noteworthy that self-employment among women is the key driver for this overall trend. 

 

5. Key Trends in PLFS 2022-23

• Upon initial analysis, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for 2022-23 reveals several encouraging trends. The unemployment rate is on a downward trajectory, and both the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and Workforce Participation Rate (WPR) exhibit substantial increases. A particularly heartening development is the notable rise in the participation of women in the workforce. This suggests a positive correlation between economic recovery and the creation of more employment opportunities, especially for women.
• However, a closer examination of the nature and remuneration of these new jobs alters the understanding. The predominant trend is the emergence of jobs falling under the category of "self-employment." Typically, in a growing economy, businesses tend to hire more employees. Conversely, during economic challenges, individuals often transition from regular employment to "self-employed" status. This nuanced perspective prompts a reconsideration of the quality and sustainability of the employment being generated.
• Analyzing the trends among women across various metrics reveals an interesting dynamic. The data suggests that economic strains on household finances have led more women, previously outside the workforce, to join in. However, a noteworthy observation is the prevalence of women taking up roles as "unpaid helpers in household enterprises," highlighting a complex interplay between economic conditions and women's workforce participation.
• Furthermore, an examination of the sectoral landscape indicates a regressive shift in India's employment patterns. Notably, there has been an increase in the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture over the past year, while the numbers in manufacturing have witnessed a decline. This shift underscores the evolving economic dynamics and sectoral preferences shaping the employment scenario.
• In a thriving economy, one would expect an improvement in monthly incomes. However, the Indian scenario deviates from this expectation. Despite positive indicators in other areas, the data suggests that the overall economic boom is not translating into significant improvements in monthly incomes for individuals in India. This anomaly prompts a closer examination of the factors contributing to this divergence.

6. The WayForward

While there are positive signals in the headline indicators, a more nuanced analysis reveals complexities like job creation, women's participation dynamics, sectoral shifts, and income patterns. This holistic perspective is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impact of economic trends on the labour market in India.

 

For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio For Mains: 1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: Codes: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true     2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020) 1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low   4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false. B. (A) is false, but (R) is true. C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A). D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A). Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Indian Express

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s forests could store nearly twice as much carbon by the end of this century as they do now if current greenhouse gas emission trends continue, according to a new modelling study published this week in the journal Environmental Research: Climate

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress