SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)
1. Context
The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026, disregard federalism and embody a technocratic vision of environmental governance, insufficiently attentive to ground realities; as framed, they risk producing blurred accountability, unproductive compliance work, and paper reporting rather than cleaner cities and villages
2. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are institutions of local self-governance that manage the affairs of urban areas, such as cities and towns. They play a crucial role in the administration and development of urban areas. ULBs are established to ensure efficient delivery of civic amenities and services to urban residents. Here are the key aspects of Urban Local Bodies:
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Types of Urban Local Bodies:
- Municipal Corporations: These are established in larger urban areas with significant populations and are responsible for providing a wide range of services. They have a Mayor, a municipal commissioner, and elected representatives. Examples include the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai and the Delhi Municipal Corporation.
- Municipal Councils: These are set up in medium-sized urban areas. They provide a narrower range of services compared to municipal corporations and are headed by a Chairperson. Examples include the Mysore City Municipal Council.
- Nagar Panchayats: These are found in smaller urban areas or transitional areas that are in the process of becoming urbanized. They are smaller than municipal councils and serve as a basic unit of local governance.
| Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) levy user fees or SWM cess as per the provisions of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. According to these guidelines, ULBs must collect user fees/cess for SWM services provisions provided. ULBs typically charge about ₹30-50 per month as SWM cess, which is collected along with property tax. ULBs are now considering revising these rates and imposing higher charges on bulk waste generators to meet a portion of the costs incurred in providing SWM services |
3. What are the Charges?
- Providing Solid Waste Management (SWM) services is a complex and resource-intensive task. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) typically allocate around 80% of their workforce and up to 50% of their annual budgets to deliver SWM services to city residents.
- In a city like Bangalore, each urban resident generates approximately 0.6 kg of waste per day, amounting to 0.2 tonnes per person annually. Overall, Bangalore produces about 5,000 tonnes of solid waste daily. Managing this volume requires around 5,000 door-to-door waste collection vehicles, 600 compactors, and roughly 20,000 sanitation workers (Paurakarmikas).
- SWM services consist of four main components: collection, transportation, processing, and disposal. ULBs often combine collection and transportation into one package, and processing and disposal into another. Collection and transportation are particularly resource and labor-intensive, consuming about 85-90% of the SWM budget, while only 10-15% is allocated to processing and disposal of waste
4. Solid Waste Mechanism in India
Solid Waste Management (SWM) in India involves a systematic approach to managing the collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of waste generated in urban areas. Here is an overview of the SWM mechanism in India:
Regulatory Framework
India's SWM practices are governed by several key regulations:
- Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules provide comprehensive guidelines for urban local bodies (ULBs) on managing solid waste, emphasizing segregation at source, decentralized processing, and safe disposal.
- Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules regulate the use, manufacture, and recycling of plastic products.
- Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016: These rules address the management and handling of hazardous waste.
Components of SWM
Collection
- Door-to-Door Collection: ULBs often implement door-to-door waste collection systems to ensure all household waste is collected efficiently.
- Segregation at Source: Residents are encouraged to segregate waste into biodegradable (wet) and non-biodegradable (dry) categories.
- Community Bins and Collection Points: Strategically placed bins and collection points are used in areas where door-to-door collection is not feasible.
Transportation
- Primary Collection Vehicles: These include handcarts, auto tippers, and tricycles used for door-to-door collection.
- Secondary Collection Vehicles: Larger vehicles like compactors and trucks transport waste from collection points to processing facilities.
Processing
- Composting: Biodegradable waste is processed into compost, which can be used as organic fertilizer.
- Vermiculture: Organic waste is converted into vermicompost using earthworms.
- Recycling: Dry waste such as plastics, paper, and metals are sorted and sent to recycling units.
Disposal
- Sanitary Landfills: Engineered landfills are designed to safely dispose of residual waste while minimizing environmental impact.
- Waste-to-Energy Plants: These facilities convert non-recyclable waste into energy through incineration or other processes.
5. Government Initiatives
- Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission): Launched in 2014, this mission aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage and promote cleanliness, including effective SWM.
- Smart Cities Mission: Focuses on sustainable and inclusive development, including modernizing urban infrastructure for better SWM.
- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Aims to provide basic services (e.g., water supply, sewerage) to households and build amenities in cities, promoting sustainable urban development, including SWM
6. What are the challenges?
- Solid waste in Indian cities comprises approximately 55-60% wet biodegradable material and 40-45% non-biodegradable material.
- Only about 1-2% of the dry waste is recyclable, with the majority being non-recyclable and non-biodegradable.
- While 55% of the wet waste has the potential to be converted into organic compost or biogas, the actual yield is as low as 10-12%, making these processes financially unfeasible.
- Typically, the operational revenue from waste processing facilities covers only 35-40% of operational expenses, with the remainder subsidized by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
- In addition to financial constraints, ULBs encounter several challenges in Solid Waste Management (SWM) services.
- These include managing open dumping sites and drains, preventing littering, dealing with seasonal variations in waste generation, and conducting sweeping operations.
- Disposing of non-compostable and non-recyclable dry waste, such as single-use plastics, textile waste, and inert materials, is costly because these materials must be transported to cement factories or waste-to-energy projects located 400-500 km from cities.
- In large cities like Bangalore, about 15% of the budget is allocated to SWM—around ₹1,643 crore out of a total ₹11,163 crore budget—while the revenue from SWM services is minimal, at approximately ₹20 lakh per year.
- Smaller cities may spend up to 50% of their budgets on SWM but also generate negligible revenue. As a result, ULBs impose an SWM cess to cover a portion of these costs
7.Way Forward
Although collection and transportation of waste generate no revenue, several strategies can reduce overall expenditure on SWM and lower user charges. These are segregation of waste at source, reducing single-use plastic, decentralised composting initiatives, Information, Education and Awareness (IEC) to prevent open littering, and asking bulk waste generators to process their own waste.
Source: The Hindu
GalaxEye Drishti Satellite
1. Context
First-of-its-kind satellite named Drishti by Indian start-up, GalaxEye, was launched on 3 May, 2026 by Falcon 9 rocket of SpaceX from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California, United States, as one of the 45 payloads on the CAS500-2 mission
2. Key takeaways
- Imaging satellites are typically fitted with either multi-spectral/hyper-spectral optical sensors or Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems. Both technologies are widely utilized for Earth observation purposes.
- Each of these imaging methods comes with certain drawbacks. Optical images produced through multi-spectral sensors are visually clear and easier to interpret, but their performance is affected during cloudy conditions or at night.
- In contrast, SAR technology can penetrate clouds and provide uninterrupted imaging in all weather conditions, though the resulting images are more complex and require expert analysis, much like X-ray scans.
- Optical and SAR sensors differ significantly in their design and mode of observation. Since they capture Earth from different viewing angles, a mismatch or parallax issue can occur. For example, when positioned side by side, an optical sensor may capture Bengaluru while the SAR sensor simultaneously records imagery from a different location such as Dubai. Additionally, differences in image acquisition timing can create temporal gaps, posing challenges for mission-critical operations.
- To overcome these limitations and produce clearer, more user-friendly satellite imagery, the Indian start-up GalaxEye developed the Drishti satellite.
- This satellite integrates both optical and SAR imaging systems on a single platform and synchronizes their operation to capture the same location simultaneously. As a result, users no longer need to manually align datasets collected from separate satellites.
- The Drishti satellite merges the visual clarity offered by optical imaging with the dependable all-weather capabilities of SAR technology.
- By combining both on a unified platform, it provides reliable, intuitive, and analysis-ready Earth observation data under all weather conditions. The company refers to this integrated innovation as Opto-SAR technology.
- According to the company, advanced AI-driven software operating both onboard the satellite and on the ground performs sub-pixel co-registration and jitter correction. These algorithms ensure that information from both sensors is accurately aligned and processed into a single, integrated dataset.
- This innovation is considered unique because it addresses challenges that are especially significant in tropical countries.
- Historically, most satellite companies have been based in Western nations, where weather conditions are relatively stable and skies are generally clearer.
- Unlike countries such as India, these regions face fewer problems related to persistent cloud cover, reducing the demand for such integrated imaging solution
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DRISHTI system of Indian Railways
Although the name is similar, its purpose is entirely different, so it should not be confused with other technologies bearing the same title. Indian Railways is preparing to introduce an Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven system called DRISHTI to strengthen the safety and security of freight train operations. The technology is intended to improve transparency, monitoring, and technological reliability within the freight protection framework. The AI-enabled Locking Monitoring System, known as DRISHTI, aims to replace conventional manual inspection methods, which are often labor-intensive, time-consuming, and inefficient, particularly for long-distance freight rakes operating under constantly changing conditions. |
3. India's Private Space Companies and Inventions
- Skyroot Aerospace is expected to emerge as the first private Indian firm to launch an orbital rocket, named Vikram-1. This multi-stage launch vehicle uses a combination of solid and liquid propulsion systems and is capable of carrying satellites weighing up to 350 kg into Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
— A key feature that distinguishes Vikram-1 is its construction using carbon composite materials instead of conventional metals. In addition, the rocket incorporates a fully indigenous 3D-printed engine, which significantly simplifies manufacturing and assembly while reducing production time and costs.
— Skyroot had earlier become the first private Indian company to conduct a successful single-stage sub-orbital launch in 2022, preceding another private player, Agnikul Cosmos. A sub-orbital mission travels at speeds below orbital velocity, allowing the vehicle to enter outer space without achieving a stable orbit around Earth.
- Pixxel announced on May 4 a collaboration with Sarvam AI to create India’s first orbital data-centre satellite, known as The Pathfinder.
— Scheduled to enter orbit by the end of 2026, the 200-kg satellite will carry advanced GPUs (Graphics Processing Units) that will support the training and inference functions of Sarvam AI’s models.
— In contrast to traditional satellite computing systems that depend on low-power processors designed mainly for operational survival, Pathfinder will employ hardware comparable to the advanced data-centre infrastructure used on Earth for cutting-edge AI applications.
- In 2024, Agnikul Cosmos achieved a milestone by successfully launching its maiden sub-orbital test vehicle, powered by the world’s first single-piece 3D-printed rocket engine. The engine, named Agnilet, operates using sub-cooled oxygen as propellant.
— The mission, titled “Agnibaan – SOrTeD” (Sub-Orbital Technology Demonstrator), was launched from “Dhanush,” India’s first privately developed launch pad established by Agnikul. The launch also marked India’s first rocket mission powered by a semi-cryogenic engine.
4. IN-SPACe
- In 2020, the Government of India established IN-SPACe and later introduced the Indian Space Policy 2023 to encourage wider participation of private companies in the country’s space sector.
- IN-SPACe operates as an autonomous, single-window nodal agency under the Department of Space (DoS), functioning independently to support and oversee non-governmental participation in space activities.
- The organisation serves both as a facilitator and a regulatory body. It acts as a bridge between ISRO and private enterprises while also evaluating the most effective ways to utilise India’s space assets and expand space-related operations.
- According to ISRO, IN-SPACe is entrusted with the responsibility of promoting, enabling, authorising, and supervising a range of activities undertaken by non-governmental entities. These include the development of launch vehicles and satellites, delivery of space-based services, access to infrastructure and facilities managed by DoS/ISRO, and the establishment of new space infrastructure.
- In 2025, the government finalised a revised draft of the Space Activities Bill with the objective of expanding India’s space economy to 44 billion dollars by 2033. Out of this projected market size, around 11 billion dollars is expected to come from exports. By comparison, India’s space sector was estimated to have a market value of 8.4 billion dollars in 2022.
5. What is an orbital data centre?
- It refers to a network of satellites equipped with advanced GPUs similar to those used in ground-based data centres. Unlike conventional satellites that primarily transmit data back to Earth, these satellites are capable of training and operating AI models directly in orbit.
- This enables them to perform computationally intensive tasks that go beyond the capabilities of the low-power edge processors typically used in satellites for functions such as data or signal compression.
- On Earth, edge computing involves processing data closer to its source instead of relying entirely on centralised cloud infrastructure. The same principle, when applied in space, forms the basis of space-based computing systems.
- Pixxel is developing the Pathfinder mission as a single-satellite technology demonstrator aimed at evaluating whether data-centre-grade hardware can operate effectively and reliably within the extreme thermal and environmental conditions of Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
6. Challenges
- GPU processors powered through solar energy generate significant amounts of heat during operation. Although outer space is extremely cold, it cannot naturally absorb this heat efficiently because space is a vacuum.
- In the absence of air, convection — the process through which warm air carries away heat from terrestrial servers — cannot occur.
- As a result, a GPU operating in orbit behaves like an enclosed oven, unable to dissipate excess thermal energy through airflow.
- To address this challenge, satellites rely on radiative cooling systems. Heat is transferred through loops filled with ammonia to extendable radiator panels, which then release the energy into space in the form of infrared radiation. The history of human space missions demonstrates how critical and unforgiving thermal management in space can be.
- Another major challenge is radiation exposure, which has influenced the design of nearly all long-duration space missions.
- High-energy cosmic radiation can cause “bit flips,” where computer data changes unexpectedly, and can also lead to gradual deterioration of semiconductor components over time.
- Although radiation-hardened chips are commonly used in spacecraft, they generally remain technologically behind commercial GPUs by several years.
- Power management presents an additional difficulty, since satellites must store sufficient energy to function during eclipse phases when sunlight is unavailable.
- Furthermore, maintenance or repairs in orbit are nearly impossible without specialised robotic systems, making built-in redundancy an essential aspect of spacecraft design from the beginning
7. Way Forward
India should strengthen its space-based computing ecosystem through sustained investment in indigenous AI hardware, radiation-resistant chips, and advanced thermal management technologies. Greater collaboration among private start-ups, academia, and organisations such as ISRO and IN-SPACe can accelerate innovation in orbital data centres and satellite infrastructure. A comprehensive regulatory framework under the proposed Space Activities Bill is essential to provide policy clarity, ensure cybersecurity, and encourage private investment. India must also focus on sustainable space operations by minimising space debris and promoting reusable launch systems. Expanding commercial applications in disaster management, agriculture, climate monitoring, and defence can improve the economic viability of orbital computing. Additionally, international cooperation and specialised skill development in aerospace engineering, AI, and semiconductor technologies will help India emerge as a major player in the global space economy while achieving technological self-reliance.
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For Prelims: IN-SPACe, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology
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Source: Indian Express
WESTERN DISTURBANCES AND EL NINO
1. Context
India is headed into a summer of compounding extremes. A fresh Western Disturbance is set to bring unseasonal rain to the north, an El Niño year threatens a weak monsoon and intensified heatwaves, and the humidity is already making temperatures feel far worse than the thermometer reads.
2. What are Western Disturbances?
- Western Disturbances are weather systems that move eastward and bring rainfall. They develop in regions west of India, mainly around Afghanistan and Iran, and gain moisture from water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Arabian Sea.
- These systems are generally extra-tropical cyclones formed due to the interaction between cold polar winds and warm tropical winds, creating low-pressure conditions.
- They are carried by the subtropical westerly jet stream, a fast-flowing, high-altitude air current that travels from west to east above the Himalayan and Tibetan regions.
- Western Disturbances occur most frequently during the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere, especially from December to March, and significantly affect the weather of northwestern India along with neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan
3. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
- The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major climatic process characterised by variations in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean along with associated changes in atmospheric conditions above it.
- These shifts can disturb global atmospheric circulation patterns and thereby affect weather conditions across different parts of the world. ENSO has three phases — the warm phase known as El Niño, the cool phase called La Niña, and a neutral phase — and generally recurs at irregular intervals ranging from two to seven years.
- Under neutral conditions, the eastern Pacific Ocean near the western coast of South America remains cooler compared to the western Pacific around Indonesia and the Philippines.
- This temperature difference is maintained by easterly trade winds that push warm surface waters westward, allowing colder water from deeper layers to rise to the surface in the eastern Pacific.
- During an El Niño event, the eastern Pacific experiences abnormal warming of surface waters. This weakens the moisture-laden winds reaching India and often leads to a weaker or delayed monsoon, causing dry conditions in several agricultural regions.
- Studies have also linked El Niño with an increased occurrence and intensity of heatwaves in India.
- In April, the U.S. Climate Prediction Center estimated a 61% probability of El Niño developing between May and July and expected it to continue through the year.
- La Niña represents the reverse situation, where the eastern Pacific surface waters become cooler than usual.
- This strengthens the moisture-carrying winds towards India and generally enhances the southwest monsoon. However, in severe cases, the resulting heavy rainfall can trigger floods and damage crops
4. What is a Heatwave?
A heat wave refers to a prolonged spell of abnormally high temperatures that are significantly above the average climatic conditions of a particular region. Since normal temperature levels differ across regions based on historical weather patterns, the definition of a heat wave also varies accordingly. Its intensity can further increase due to factors such as high humidity, strong winds, and the length of the hot spell.
According to the criteria used by the India Meteorological Department, a heat wave may be identified when the maximum temperature reaches at least 40°C in plain areas and 30°C in hilly regions. After this threshold is crossed, a heat wave can be officially declared on two main bases:
- Departure from normal temperature:
If the temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C above the seasonal average, it is classified as a heat wave. When the temperature exceeds this range, it may be categorised as a severe heat wave. - Absolute maximum temperature:
A heat wave is automatically declared when the maximum temperature touches or surpasses 45°C. If the temperature reaches 47°C or more, it is considered a severe heat wave.
5. What are Wet bulb and Dry bulb Temperatures?
- The temperature commonly recorded using a standard thermometer is known as the Dry Bulb Temperature. It represents the actual air temperature but does not take atmospheric moisture into consideration.
- In contrast, Wet Bulb Temperature measures the lowest temperature that air can achieve through the evaporation of water, thereby indicating the efficiency of evaporative cooling under humid conditions.
- Generally, the Wet Bulb Temperature remains lower than the Dry Bulb Temperature, and the gap between the two becomes larger when the air is drier.
- According to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, continuous exposure to wet bulb temperatures above 35°C can be life-threatening.
- Even temperatures exceeding 31°C can pose serious risks during strenuous physical activity. Individuals with existing health conditions such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases are particularly vulnerable, while outdoor workers and labourers face greater danger because of dehydration and prolonged heat exposure.
- At the same time, the AR6 notes that the possibility of such extreme wet bulb temperatures persisting for more than a few hours remains very low
6.Impacts of heat waves in India
- The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
- For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
- Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
- Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
- Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
- Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
- According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
- The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
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The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
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For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
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Previous Year Questions
1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010)
1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013) |
Source: Indianexpress
LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE (LFPR)
1. Context
The overall LFPR among persons of age 15 years and above estimated at 55.5% in January-March, 2026, compared to 55.8% in the previous quarter. In rural areas, LFPR for persons of age 15 years and above observed as 58.2% in the present quarter while it stood at 58.4% in October-December, 2025. Urban LFPR for the same age group was 50.2% in January-March, 2026 compared to 50.4% observed in the preceding quarter.
2. What is Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)?
- The labor force participation rate (LFPR) is a measure that refers to the percentage of the working-age population (typically defined as individuals aged 15 years and above) who are either employed or actively seeking employment.
- It is a commonly used indicator to understand the level of engagement of a country's population in the labor market.
- To calculate the LFPR, the number of individuals in the labor force (which includes both employed and unemployed individuals actively seeking work) is divided by the total working-age population and multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage.
- The labor force includes people who are currently employed, as well as those who are unemployed but actively looking for work.
- It does not include individuals who are not in the labor force, such as students, retirees, homemakers, or individuals who are not actively seeking employment.
- The LFPR provides insights into the proportion of the population that is economically active, which is important for assessing the level of labor market engagement, estimating potential labor supply, and evaluating changes in workforce dynamics over time.
3. LFPR and Unemployment Rate in India
- Unemployment Rate: The percentage of people who are unemployed and actively seeking work.
- LFPR (Labour Force Participation Rate): The percentage of the working-age population that is either employed or actively seeking employment.
- Importance of Unemployment Rate: Commonly used to assess the stress in the job market.
- India's Unique Situation:
- Low LFPR: India's LFPR has been consistently lower than the global average.
- Falling LFPR: India's LFPR has been declining over time.
4. Significance of LFPR
- Developing Economy Concern: A low and falling LFPR is unfavorable for a developing economy like India.
- Lack of Job Opportunities: Workers may opt out of the labor force due to prolonged unemployment and discouragement.
- The unemployment rate alone is insufficient to gauge India's labor market situation.
- LFPR provides a more comprehensive understanding of labor market engagement and workforce dynamics.
5. Falling LFPR
- India's LFPR has been continuously decreasing since 2016-17.
- Reached its lowest level in 2022-23.
- Despite fast economic growth (e.g., GDP growth of 7.2% in 2022-23), LFPR has been declining.
6. Low Female LFPR
- Female LFPR in India has dropped to just 8.8% in FY23.
- More than 90% of working-age women in India do not actively look for jobs.
- Significantly lower LFPR among women indicates gender-related challenges in accessing and participating in the labor market.
7. Key Observations
- The falling LFPR contradicts the country's economic growth rate.
- Female LFPR is particularly concerning, with a vast majority of women not seeking employment.
- Low LFPR and low female LFPR signify potential issues with job availability, gender inequality, and labor market participation in India.
8. Comparison of Labor Force Participation Rates in India and Other Countries
- CMIE vs. ILO: CMIE's measure of assessing the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is more stringent than that of the International Labour Organization (ILO).
- India's LFPR: CMIE estimated India's LFPR at 40% for 2022, while the ILO pegged it at 49%. Both measures indicate a low LFPR compared to other countries.
- Higher LFPR in other countries: According to the ILO model, several Latin American and Asian economies have significantly higher LFPRs than India.
- Indonesia had an LFPR of around 67% in 2022, while South Korea and Brazil had rates as high as 63-64%. Argentina, Bangladesh, and the Philippines recorded LFPRs in the range of 58-60%. Sri Lanka had over 51% of its population in the labor force.
- In contrast, India had less than half of its working-age population either employed or actively seeking employment, according to the data.
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For Prelims: Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), Labour force participation rate (LFPR), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), International Labour Organisation (ILO), and Unemployment rate.
For Mains: 1. What is Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and discuss the factors that have contributed to the Low LFPR in India? (250 Words)
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Previous year Question
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1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
Answer: C
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTION (NDC)
1. Context
On Wednesday, the Union Cabinet approved India’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). This includes committing to have 60% of its installed electric capacity from non-fossil sources by 2035, reducing by 47% the intensity of emissions per unit of GDP (from 2005 levels), and increasing its carbon sink to 3.5 billion-4 billion tonnes of COâ‚‚ equivalent
2. What is a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)?
- A Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) is a country's self-defined climate action plan under the Paris Agreement (2015), outlining its commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change
- Each NDC typically covers a country's targets for reducing emissions (e.g., cutting COâ‚‚ by X% by 2030), the sectors it will focus on (energy, transport, agriculture, etc.), adaptation strategies to deal with climate impacts, and sometimes finance, technology, and capacity-building needs
- Countries submit their NDCs to the UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change). There is no single global template — each country determines its own goals based on its capabilities and national circumstances
- NDCs are the core mechanism through which the Paris Agreement's goal — limiting global warming to 1.5–2°C above pre-industrial levels — is expected to be achieved. Collectively, the ambition of all NDCs determines whether the world stays on track
3. Are Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) voluntary or mandatory?
- Under the Paris Agreement, all participating nations are required to submit their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) at regular intervals.
- These are voluntary climate commitments that outline how each country plans to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and contribute to global climate goals.
- India’s earlier NDC, submitted in August 2022, included commitments to achieve 50% of its installed power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45%, and create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of COâ‚‚-equivalent through forest and tree cover.
- The newly announced targets go beyond these earlier commitments by raising each of these benchmarks.
- The revised goal of 60% non-fossil installed capacity is particularly significant, as India has already demonstrated strong progress in this direction.
- By the beginning of 2026, nearly 52% of the country’s installed capacity was already derived from non-fossil sources, meaning the earlier 2030 target had been achieved well ahead of schedule.
- Moreover, until the close of 2025, India and Argentina were the only G20 countries yet to declare their 2035 NDCs.
- With this latest announcement, India has now addressed that notable gap in the global record of climate commitments
4. Have Nationally Determined Contributions Truly Accelerated the Clean Energy Transition?
- Whether Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) have genuinely pushed countries toward clean energy remains the most important question in every climate commitment cycle, and the available evidence presents a rather mixed picture.
- The United Nations Environment Programme’s Emissions Gap Report 2025, significantly titled “Off Target,” offered a stark assessment: since 2015, countries have had three opportunities to align their commitments with global climate goals, yet on each occasion they have fallen short.
- Although the projected rise in global temperature has been revised downward from 2.6–2.8°C to 2.3–2.5°C, a substantial part of this apparent improvement is attributed to changes in methodology rather than real progress.
- In addition, the United States’ withdrawal from the Paris Agreement has further weakened these gains.
- According to the World Resources Institute, the NDCs submitted so far bridge less than 14% of the emissions gap required to keep warming within 1.5°C.
- A closer look at the commitments makes the situation even more concerning. The E3G NDC Energy Commitments Tracker, which reviewed 101 national submissions by the end of 2025, found that while 94% of countries had included at least one pledge related to the energy transition, none had produced a fully integrated roadmap consistent with the COP28 energy package.
- This package, popularly known as the “UAE Consensus,” was adopted by nearly 200 countries in December 2023 and called for faster climate action through a shift away from fossil fuels, a tripling of global renewable energy capacity, and a doubling of improvements in energy efficiency by 2030 to keep the 1.5°C target within reach.
- Yet, despite these commitments, no country specified a concrete target for reducing oil and gas production, and almost three-fourths of the submissions made no reference to reforming fossil fuel subsidies.
- Furthermore, many developing countries have made their climate goals contingent on receiving international financial support, which currently remains far below the required scale.
- This leads to a striking paradox: even though NDCs themselves have had limited success in driving policy transformation, the clean energy transition is still gathering pace globally.
- In 2025, worldwide installations of solar and wind energy reached an unprecedented 814 GW, and renewable sources overtook coal to become the largest source of electricity generation globally in the first half of the year.
- However, this momentum appears to be driven less by NDC commitments and more by rapidly declining renewable energy costs, technological advances, and intense industrial competition, especially the dominant role played by China in clean energy manufacturing.
- In this sense, the NDC framework has been more effective in recording and reflecting ongoing progress than in actually compelling countries to undertake the deep structural reforms necessary for a complete transition away from fossil fuels
5. India's emissions data
- A recent study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA), highlighted by Carbon Brief, indicates that India’s COâ‚‚ emissions increased by only 0.7% in 2025, marking the slowest pace of growth since 2001, excluding the exceptional pandemic year of 2020.
- This represents a sharp slowdown compared to the 4–11% annual rise recorded during 2021–24. The major reason behind this moderation was the power sector, where emissions declined by 3.8%.
- Notably, electricity generation from coal registered a fall for the first time since 1973 outside the Covid period. CREA notes that in 2025, India added nearly 47 GW of solar capacity, 6.3 GW of wind power, 4 GW of hydropower, and 0.6 GW of nuclear energy, creating enough clean electricity capacity to meet up to 5% of the growth in demand.
- However, this improvement was not uniform across all sectors. Emissions from steel production rose by 8%, while the cement sector expanded by 10%, contributing to the modest overall increase in emissions.
- According to the analysis, India’s power sector may be approaching a turning point as early as 2026, when the amount of newly installed clean energy capacity could fully match the annual rise in electricity demand.
- Supporting this outlook, the Central Electricity Authority’s National Generation Adequacy Plan estimates that non-fossil fuel capacity will reach 786 GW by 2035–36, accounting for nearly 70% of the total installed capacity, with solar power alone expected to exceed 500 GW.
- At the same time, some observers urge caution. They point out that 2025 witnessed relatively mild summer conditions, limited heatwaves, and subdued industrial activity, factors that may have temporarily reduced energy demand and emissions growth.
- Therefore, while the findings are encouraging, it may still be too early to treat this as a long-term structural shift, and a clearer trend would need to be confirmed over the coming years
6. Way Forward
India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) assesses its climate progress through the metric of emissions intensity, that is, the volume of emissions released for every unit of GDP produced. Under this method, total emissions are still allowed to rise, so long as the economy expands at a faster rate than the growth in emissions. India has justified this approach on the basis of equity and developmental fairness, emphasizing that its per capita emissions are still only a small share of those seen in many developed Western countries.
However, certain inconsistencies continue to remain. The country is planning to add nearly 100 GW of coal-based power capacity over the next seven years, channel around $1 trillion into petrochemical investments by 2040, and expand coal-dependent steel production capacity by 50% by 2031. These plans appear to sit uneasily alongside its long-term climate commitments. In addition, as highlighted by Vibhuti Garg of the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis, more than 37 GW of renewable energy capacity is currently lying underutilized because the power grid is not yet fully prepared to absorb and transmit it efficiently.
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For Prelims: Paris Agreement, Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), Fossil fuels
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (2016) (a) pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East (b) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change (c) capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (d) plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals Answer: (b) 2. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) Mains
1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (2021) 2. ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India are affected by climate change? (2017) |
Source: The Hindu
ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 1955
1. Context
As the blockade of the Strait of Hormuz exposed the vulnerability of India’s supply chain for cooking gas, the majority of which is imported, the Union government invoked the Essential Commodities Act, 1955. While long-term steps are needed to diversify and reduce reliance on global suppliers and expand strategic reserves, the Act is a crucial emergency tool for now. It allows the Centre to direct refiners to boost domestic LPG production, prioritise household consumption, and regulate the allocation of natural gas.
2. What is the Essential Commodities Act, 1955?
- The Act authorizes the Union government to regulate the production, supply, and distribution of key commodities, such as medicines, fertilizers, food items, edible oils, fuels, and seeds.
- According to Section 3 of the Essential Commodities Act, 1955, the government may issue directives to ensure adequate supply, promote increased production of essential goods, and guarantee their fair distribution so that they remain accessible to the public at reasonable prices.
- It also has the authority to fix prices and stock limits, restrict certain sales, regulate storage, transportation, and distribution, and take measures to curb hoarding and black-marketing.
- In recent years, the Act has been used to address shortages of commodities such as wheat, sugar, and pulses. It was also enforced during the COVID-19 lockdown to curb hoarding, profiteering, and black-market activities involving several essential goods
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Essential commodities are goods that are necessary for daily life and whose shortage can affect the public. Under the Act, the Central Government can declare any commodity as essential. Common examples include:
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3. Why is this law invoked now?
- Amid military strikes by the United States and Israel, Iran has responded by launching attacks on oil-producing countries in the Persian Gulf that host U.S. military bases and by targeting vessels passing through the Strait of Hormuz.
- Although nearly one-fifth of the world’s oil trade moves through this strategic maritime route, the immediate concern for Indian consumers has been the potential disruption in the supply of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), commonly used as cooking fuel.
- Government initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana significantly expanded LPG access in India, raising household coverage from around 62% in 2016 to almost universal access today.
- However, domestic production has not grown at the same pace as demand. In 2024–25, Indian refineries produced about 12.8 million metric tonnes of LPG, meeting only around 41% of the country’s annual requirement of 31.3 million tonnes, according to data from the Petroleum Ministry.
- The remaining demand is met through imports, nearly 90% of which pass through the Strait of Hormuz.
- Apart from LPG, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is also used in Indian households through pipeline networks, as well as for transportation and various commercial applications.
- Of India’s daily gas consumption of roughly 189 million metric standard cubic meters, about 52% is produced domestically.
- Meanwhile, approximately one-quarter of the total demand is satisfied through imports from the Persian Gulf
4. How does order affect LPG Production?
- On March 5, the government instructed all oil refineries across India to divert their propane and butane outputs toward LPG production instead of using them for petrochemical manufacturing.
- A follow-up directive issued on March 9 expanded the scope of this order to include oil refineries and petrochemical units located in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
- It further clarified that propylene, butene, and other components from the C3 and C4 hydrocarbon streams must also be utilised solely for LPG production.
- The directive applies not only to public sector refiners such as Indian Oil Corporation, Bharat Petroleum, and Hindustan Petroleum, but also to other entities including Chennai Petroleum Corporation, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, and Numaligarh Refinery Limited.
- In addition, private-sector refiners like Reliance Industries and Nayara Energy have also been brought under this order.
- According to the government, these measures have already boosted domestic LPG production by about 25%. Nevertheless, a significant portion of the country’s demand—roughly half—still needs to be met through imports.
- The directive also mandates that all LPG output be supplied exclusively to Indian Oil Corporation, Bharat Petroleum, and Hindustan Petroleum, which have been instructed to prioritise distribution of cylinders to household consumers.
- As a result, reduced supply to commercial establishments has led several restaurants, hostels, and hotels to temporarily close or scale down their operations
5. Regulation of Natural Gas Supply
- The directive issued on March 9 regarding natural gas does not alter production levels; instead, it introduces a priority-based system for allocating gas supplies, superseding existing contractual arrangements.
- Under this framework, the highest priority is assigned to piped natural gas supplied to households, compressed natural gas used in transportation, gas required for LPG production, and fuel for pipeline compressors.
- These sectors will receive supplies equivalent to 100% of their average consumption during the previous six months, subject to overall availability.
- Fertilizer producers will be allocated about 70% of their usual requirements, although this proportion may be revised if ongoing conflict continues to disrupt supply chains during the kharif sowing season.
- Meanwhile, sectors such as tea processing, manufacturing, and other industries will receive up to 80% of their typical supply.
- Certain petrochemical units operated by Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, GAIL, and Reliance Industries may experience partial or complete reductions in liquefied natural gas (LNG) supplies. Additionally, natural gas allocations to oil refineries are expected to fall to around 65% of their normal consumption levels
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For Prelims: Essential Commodities, liquefied natural gas (LNG), Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
For Mains: GS II - Policy and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following statements is/are correct about the Strait of Hormuz?
Select the correct answer using the code below: (a) 1 and 2 only Answer: (a) 2.With reference to Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (b) 3.Consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (c) |
Source: The Hindu
DIVERSITY IN JUDICIARY
1. Context
P. Wilson, senior advocate and Rajya Sabha MP of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party, has introduced a private member Bill to amend the Constitution in order to bring diversity in judicial appointments and set up regional benches of the Supreme Court
2. What does the Constitution provide?
Article 124 of the Constitution states that the President appoints judges of the Supreme Court in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI). In the same manner, Article 217 lays down that High Court judges are appointed by the President after consulting the CJI, the concerned High Court’s Chief Justice, and the Governor of the respective State. Further, under Article 130, the Supreme Court is to function from Delhi, unless the Chief Justice of India, with the approval of the Central Government, designates another location as its seat
3. What is the collegium system?
- According to the constitutional framework, judicial appointments were made by the government in consultation with the judiciary until the 1980s.
- In the First Judges Case (1981), the Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointing judges, on the ground that it is democratically accountable to the people.
- However, to safeguard judicial independence and prevent political influence, the Supreme Court in the Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the collegium system for appointments. This position was reaffirmed in the Third Judges Case (1998).
- Under the collegium system, appointments to the Supreme Court are recommended by a body comprising the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- For High Court appointments, the collegium includes the CJI and two senior-most Supreme Court judges. The collegium initiates proposals for appointments and forwards its recommendations to the Central Government.
- While the government may return a recommendation for reconsideration, if the collegium reiterates its view, the appointment becomes binding.
- The collegium system has played a significant role in maintaining judicial independence from the executive in matters of appointments. However, it has faced criticism for its opacity and limited accountability.
- Concerns have also been raised about alleged favoritism, including the appointment of relatives of sitting judges. In 2014, Parliament enacted the 99th Constitutional Amendment to establish the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), which was intended to recommend judicial appointments.
- The proposed NJAC was to include the CJI, two senior Supreme Court judges, the Union Law Minister, and two eminent persons.
- However, in 2015, the Supreme Court struck down the NJAC, holding that it violated the basic structure of the Constitution by undermining judicial independence. As a result, the collegium system continues to govern judicial appointments today
4. About this new private member's bill
- The collegium system prioritizes merit while recommending appointments to the higher judiciary. However, it has been criticized for not adequately representing the country’s social diversity.
- For example, among judges appointed to the higher judiciary between 2018 and 2024, only about one-fifth were from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC).
- The representation of women has remained below 15%, while that of religious minorities is under 5%.
- A Private Member’s Bill seeks to address this imbalance by mandating proportional representation for SCs, STs, OBCs, women, and religious minorities in appointments to the Supreme Court and High Courts, in line with their population share.
- The Bill also proposes that the Central Government must notify collegium recommendations within a maximum period of 90 days.
- Access to the Supreme Court is another concern, as it functions solely from Delhi, making it difficult for many citizens to approach the apex court. Additionally, over 90,000 cases were pending before the Supreme Court as of January 2026.
- To tackle these challenges, the Bill suggests establishing regional benches of the Supreme Court in New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai.
- These benches would exercise the Court’s full jurisdiction, except in matters involving substantial constitutional questions, which would continue to be heard by the Constitution Bench at the principal seat in Delhi.
5. Way Forward
The responsibility for promoting social diversity in judicial appointments largely rests with the judiciary, particularly through the collegium mechanism. The proposed Private Member’s Bill assumes significance because it seeks to establish a constitutional mandate to achieve greater inclusivity. As a long-term measure, the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) could be reconsidered with a more diversified composition. Its structure may be expanded to include members from the legislature, the Bar Council, and academia, similar to appointment frameworks followed in countries such as South Africa and the United Kingdom. Such a model would make the consultative process more representative and participatory, while ensuring adequate inclusion of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, and women.
Furthermore, as suggested earlier by Parliamentary Committees and the Law Commission, regional benches of the Supreme Court can be created within the existing constitutional framework. The Court could begin by establishing a bench in one region on a pilot basis and subsequently expand to other regions within a defined timeframe
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For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, Article 124, 99th Constitutional Amendment Act
For Mains:
1. Discuss the evolution of the Supreme Court of India from its inauguration in 1950 to the present day. How has its structure and capacity evolved to meet the changing demands of the legal landscape? (250 Words)
2. Examine the constitutional provisions that govern the Supreme Court of India. How do these provisions delineate the powers, jurisdiction, and composition of the Supreme Court? (250 Words)
3. What are the key features of the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, and how did it differ from the Collegium system? (250 Words)
4. How does the appointment process of judges in the Supreme Court of India, emphasise the role of the Collegium system? What are the concerns associated with this system, and do you believe reforms are necessary? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehaviour' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 only C. 3 and 4 only D. 1, 3 and 4
4.The power to increase the number of judges in the Supreme Court of India is vested in (UPSC 2014)
A. the President of India B. the Parliament C. the Chief Justice of India D. the Law Commission 5.The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC P 2014)
A. advisory jurisdiction B. appellate jurisdiction. C. original jurisdiction D. writ jurisdiction Answers: 1-A, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B, 5-C
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Source: The Hindu
