SOUTHWEST MONSOON
- The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
- The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
- The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
- The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
- The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
- The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon
Mechanism:
- High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
- Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
- Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
- Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
- Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
- Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Characteristics:
- Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
- Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
- Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
- Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
- Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
- They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
- The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems
Characteristics:
- Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
- Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
- Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
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Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.
Here's a concise explanation of the process:
- Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
- Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
- Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
- Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
- Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
- Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
- The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
- Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
- The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
- The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
- The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
- Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
- El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
- The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
- El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
- Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
- La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
- The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
- La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
- La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
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FOREIGN PORTFOLIO INVESTMENT (FPI)
- Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) are overseas entities or individuals who invest in the financial assets of a country, such as shares, bonds, debentures, mutual funds, or other securities, without having direct control over the businesses they invest in.
- Unlike Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), which involves establishing a lasting interest in an enterprise, setting up facilities, or acquiring a controlling stake, FPIs are primarily concerned with earning returns from the movement of capital markets.
- Essentially, FPIs put their money into a country’s stock market or debt market to benefit from short- or medium-term price changes, dividends, or interest income.
- Their investment is often guided by considerations like the stability of the economy, growth prospects, interest rates, and global liquidity conditions.
- Because the money can be moved in and out relatively quickly, FPIs are often described as “hot money,” highlighting the fact that such investments can be highly volatile.
- In India, FPIs are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), which set the rules regarding eligibility, permissible investment limits, and reporting requirements
- These investors can include foreign institutional investors such as pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds, asset management companies, or even individual investors from abroad.
- Their participation is significant because it not only provides additional capital for companies and governments but also increases liquidity and depth in the financial markets.
- However, large-scale entry or exit of FPIs can impact stock prices, exchange rates, and overall financial stability
- That’s a very relevant follow-up. The key difference between Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) lies in the nature, purpose, and level of control over the assets being invested in.
- Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) refers to investment in a country’s financial markets—such as equities, bonds, or other securities—without seeking management control or a lasting interest in the company.
- An FPI is more like buying shares on the stock exchange: the investor becomes a shareholder but has little or no say in how the company is run.
- The intention is usually to earn returns from dividends, interest, or capital gains, and the money can move in and out relatively quickly depending on market conditions. Because of this, FPIs are generally considered more volatile and speculative in nature.
- On the other hand, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) involves investing directly in productive assets of another country, such as setting up factories, infrastructure projects, offices, or acquiring a significant stake in a company to gain management influence.
- The idea here is to establish a long-term business presence and contribute to the host country’s economic activities.
- FDI is more stable because it ties the investor to physical assets and operational responsibilities, making it less prone to sudden withdrawal compared to FPI.
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In short:
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- FPI brings in foreign capital into a country’s stock and debt markets, which increases the liquidity and depth of those markets. This makes it easier for domestic companies and governments to raise funds, since more investors are available to buy their securities.
- It also improves market efficiency, as the entry of sophisticated foreign investors often brings in better practices in valuation, analysis, and corporate governance.
- For the broader economy, FPIs are an important source of foreign exchange inflow. This helps strengthen the balance of payments, stabilizes the currency in times of pressure, and gives policymakers more room to finance trade deficits.
- For emerging economies like India, FPIs signal international confidence in the domestic economy. When foreign investors channel funds into Indian markets, it reflects their positive outlook on India’s growth potential, macroeconomic stability, and regulatory environment.
- However, FPIs are equally significant because of their volatility. Since FPI money can be withdrawn at short notice—depending on global interest rates, risk perception, or geopolitical conditions—large inflows or sudden outflows can cause swings in stock markets and currency values.
- For example, massive withdrawals of FPI funds may lead to a depreciation of the rupee and stock market instability, affecting both investors and the wider economy.
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The Foreign Capital Paradox refers to the puzzling observation that capital (money for investment) does not always flow from rich countries to poor countries, even though economic theory suggests it should.
In theory, poorer countries, being capital-scarce, should offer higher returns on investment compared to rich countries where capital is already abundant and returns are relatively lower. Based on this logic, one would expect foreign capital—through FDI, FPI, or loans—to flow heavily into developing or low-income nations, helping them grow faster. This is consistent with the predictions of the neoclassical growth model.
However, in reality, the flow of capital is often the opposite. A large share of global investment moves among already rich, developed nations rather than toward poorer countries. Many developing countries actually see capital outflows instead of inflows, despite their greater need for funds. This mismatch between theory and reality is what economists call the “foreign capital paradox.”
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One of the best-known explanations for this paradox comes from Robert Lucas (1990), often referred to as the Lucas Paradox. He argued that capital doesn’t flow as expected due to several factors:
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For Prelims: Balance of payments (BOP), foreign portfolio investors (FPI), foreign direct investment(FDI)
For Prelims: GS III - Economy
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following is issued by registered foreign portfolio investors to overseas investors who want to be part of the Indian stock market without registering themselves directly? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Certificate of Deposit (b) Commercial Paper (c) Promissory Note (d) Participatory Note Answer (d)
Participatory Notes (P-notes) are financial instruments issued by registered Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) to overseas investors who wish to invest in Indian stock markets without directly registering with SEBI. They are essentially offshore derivative instruments, linked to Indian securities. For example, if an FPI buys shares of Infosys in India, it can issue a P-note to an overseas investor. That overseas investor will gain the benefits (returns) from Infosys’ shares without directly owning them in India. This route is often used by investors who want to save time and avoid the regulatory process of registration, though SEBI keeps a close watch on P-notes due to concerns about transparency and misuse |
SELECTING ELECTION COMMISSIONERS
- Anoop Baranwal initiated a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in 2015, urging the Supreme Court to establish an independent system resembling the collegium for appointing the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (ECs).
- In March 2023, the Supreme Court noted the absence of parliamentary legislation over the past 73 years regarding the appointment of the CEC and ECs since the Constitution's adoption.
- Acknowledging the vital role of the Election Commission of India (ECI) in ensuring fair elections for a robust democracy, the court referenced various independent mechanisms in other constitutional institutions such as the National and State Human Rights Commission, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Information Commission, and Lokpal.
- Previously, the Dinesh Goswami Committee on Electoral Reforms (1990) and the Law Commission's 255th report on Electoral Reforms (2015) had proposed a committee comprising the Prime Minister, Chief Justice of India (CJI), and the Leader of the Opposition or the largest Opposition party in the Lok Sabha for the appointment of the CEC and ECs.
- Taking these suggestions into account, the Supreme Court, utilizing its authority under Article 142 to ensure 'complete justice,' mandated that the committee responsible for appointing the CEC and ECs would consist of the Prime Minister, CJI, and the Leader of the Opposition or the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha. This directive will stand until Parliament formulates a specific law on this issue
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The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Bill, 2023, was introduced in Rajya Sabha on August 10, 2023. It repeals the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991.
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Election Commission: As per Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of other Election Commissioners (ECs), as the President may decide. The CEC and other ECs are appointed by the President. The Bill specifies the same composition of the Election Commission. It adds that the CEC and other ECs will be appointed by the President on the recommendation of a Selection Committee.
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Selection Committee: The Selection Committee will consist of (i) the Prime Minister as Chairperson, (ii) the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha as a member, and (iii) a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister as a member. If the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha has not been recognized, the leader of the single largest opposition party in Lok Sabha will assume the role.
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Search Committee: A Search Committee will prepare a panel of five persons for the consideration of the Selection Committee. The Search Committee will be headed by the Cabinet Secretary. It will have two other members, not below the rank of Secretary to the central government, having knowledge and experience in matters related to elections. The Selection Committee may also consider candidates who have not been included in the panel prepared by the Search Committee.
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Qualification of CEC and ECs: Persons who are holding or have held posts equivalent to the rank of Secretary to the central government will be eligible to be appointed as CEC and ECs. Such persons must have expertise in managing and conducting elections.
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Salary and allowances: The 1991 Act provides that the salary of the ECs will be equal to that of a Supreme Court judge. The Bill provides that the salary, allowance, and service conditions of the CEC and other ECs will be the same as that of the Cabinet Secretary.
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Term of office: The 1991 Act mandates that the CEC and other ECs will hold office for a term of six years or until they reach the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. If an EC is appointed as the CEC, his total term cannot exceed six years. The Bill retains the same tenure. Further, under the Bill, the CEC and other ECs will not be eligible for re-appointment.
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Conduct of business: All business of the Election Commission is to be conducted unanimously. In case of a difference of opinion between the CEC and the other ECs on any matter, it shall be decided through the majority.
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Removal and resignation: Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the CEC can only be removed from his office in a manner similar to that of a Supreme Court judge. This is done through an order of the President, based on a motion passed by both Houses of Parliament in the same session. The motion for removal must be adopted with (i) majority support of total membership of each House, and (ii) at least two-thirds support from members present and voting. An EC can only be removed from office on the recommendation of the CEC. The Bill retains this removal procedure.
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Further, the 1991 Act provides that the CEC and other ECs may submit their resignation to the President. The Bill has the same provision.
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Constitution Says-
Article 324 provides for the composition of the Election Commission of India (ECI). It consists of the CEC and two other ECs. The Constitution provides that the appointment of the CEC and EC shall, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, be made by the President. While the existing parliamentary law provides for their conditions of service, it is silent with respect to appointments. The appointments till date are made by the President, that is the Central Government and there is no mechanism for ensuring independence during the appointment process
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- The process of selecting and appointing members to electoral bodies varies internationally across democracies. For instance, in South Africa, involvement includes the President of the Constitutional Court, representatives from the Human Rights Court, and advocates for gender equality. In the United Kingdom, candidates receive approval from the House of Commons, while in the United States, the President nominates them, and the Senate confirms the appointments.
- Although the proposed Bill shifts the appointment process from a sole executive decision to a committee-based selection, it still leans in favor of the existing government.
- The Supreme Court took into account recommendations from diverse committees and the appointment mechanisms for certain independent bodies like the CBI, involving the Chief Justice of India (CJI), while establishing its selection procedure.
- While Parliament holds the authority to legislate on this matter, it might have been prudent to include the CJI in the selection committee to ensure the highest level of independence.
- Nonetheless, it's highly probable that the Bill will become law in its current shape. It would be commendable and foster public trust in the functioning of the Election Commission of India (ECI) if, at the very least, selections under the new law are made unanimously by the proposed selection committee
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India, President, Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), Article 324, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs). For Mains 1. The Election Commission of India is often hailed as the guardian of democracy. Discuss the constitutional provisions and the various measures it takes to ensure free and fair elections in the country. (250 words). 2. Examine the role of the Election Commission of India in regulating the influence of money in politics. How effective have its measures been in curbing electoral malpractice related to campaign finance? (250 words). |
Previous year Questions1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 3 only Answer: D 2.With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019) Answer (b) 1.In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC Mains GS2, 2018) |
SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
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During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
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- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
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Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
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Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
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Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
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This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
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Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
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Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
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Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
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Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
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For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
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MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE
1. Context
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has approved the increase in the Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for 14 Kharif Crops for Marketing Season 2026-27.
2. What is the Minimum Support Price (MSP)?
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- MSP is the minimum price a farmer must pay for their food grains as guaranteed by the government. They are recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
- The CACP submits its recommendations to the government in the form of Price Policy Reports every year.
- After considering the report and views of the state governments and also keeping in view the overall demand and supply situation in the country, the central government takes the final decision.
- The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal agency for procurement along with State agencies, at the beginning of the sowing season.
- 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize, bajra, jowar, ragi, and barley)
- 5 pulses (chana, tur/arhar, moong, urad, and Masur)
- 7 oilseeds (rapeseed-mustard, groundnut, soya bean, sunflower, sesamum, safflower, and Enigerseed) and
- 4 commercial crops (sugarcane, cotton, copra, and raw jute).
3. How MSP is Calculated?
- MSP, presently, is based on a formula of 1.5 times the production costs.
- The CACP projects three kinds of production costs for every crop, both at state and all-India average levels.
- A2 covers all paid-out costs directly incurred by the farmer — in cash and kind — on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, hired labour, leased-in land, fuel, irrigation, etc.
- A2+FL includes A2 plus an imputed value of unpaid family labour.
- C2: Estimated land rent and the cost of interest on the money taken for farming are added to A2 and FL.
- Farm unions are demanding that a comprehensive cost calculation (C2) must also include capital assets and the rentals and interest forgone on owned land, as recommended by the National Commission for Farmers.
4. The issue with the calculation of MSP
- To calculate MSP, the government uses A2+FL cost. The criticism of A2+FL is that it doesn’t cover all costs and that a more representative measure, C2, needs to be used.
- For example, in the 2017-18 rabi season, CACP data shows that C2 for wheat was 54% higher than A2+FL.
- The Swaminathan Commission also stated that the MSP should be based on the comprehensive cost of production, which is the C2 method.
5. Key Points about the Farmer's Demand
- After the recent decision to repeal three contentious farm laws, protesting farmer unions are now pressing for their demand of the legalization of the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
- They want a legal guarantee for the MSP, which at present is just an indicative or a desired price.
- Legalising MSPs would put the government under a legal obligation to buy every grain of the crops for which MSPs have been announced.
- At present, the PM has announced the formation of a committee to make MSP more transparent, as well as to change crop patterns and to promote zero-budget agriculture which would reduce the cost of production.
- The entire issue of enforcing MSP legally is a tricky, complicated, and multidimensional one, involving lots of factors.
- Core demand: MSP based on a C2+50% formula should be made a legal entitlement for all agricultural produce. This would mean a 34% increase in the latest MSP for paddy and a 13% increase for wheat. MSP should also be extended to fruit and vegetable farmers who have been excluded from benefits so far.
6. The rationale behind the demand for legislation of MSP
- Farmers receive less than MSP: In most crops grown across much of India, the prices received by farmers, especially during harvest time, are well below the officially declared MSPs. And since MSPs have no statutory backing, they cannot demand these as a matter of right.
- Limited procurement by the Govt: Also, the actual procurement at MSP by the Govt. is confined to only about a third of wheat and rice crops (of which half is bought in Punjab and Haryana alone), and 10%-20% of select pulses and oilseeds. According to the Shanta Kumar Committee’s 2015 report, only 6% of the farm households sell wheat and rice to the government at the MSP rates.
7. Challenges associated with MSP
- Protest by Farmers: Farm unions have been protesting for more than six months on Delhi's outskirts, demanding legislation to guarantee MSP for all farmers for all crops and a repeal of three contentious farm reform laws.
- MSP and Inflation: When announcing the MSP, inflation should be taken into account. But often the price is not increased up to the mark. For example, this time MSP for Maize has not even considered inflation then how it will benefit farmers! Also, frequent increases in the MSPs can lead to inflation too.
- High Input Costs: The input costs have been rising faster than sale prices, squeezing the meagre income of the small farmers and driving them into debt.
- Lack of Mechanism: No mechanism guarantees that every farmer can get at least the MSP as the floor price in the market. So proper mechanisms need to be fixed for all times to come.
- Restriction in Europe: Even after producing surplus grains, every year a huge portion of these grains gets rotten. This is due to the restrictions under WTO norms, that grain stocks with the FCI (being heavily subsidized due to MSP) cannot be exported.
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For Prelims: Minimum Support Price, Rabi Crops, WTO, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, Food Corporation of India
For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of Minimum Support Price (MSP) in India. How is MSP determined, and what is its role in ensuring fair prices for agricultural produce? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. In the case of all cereals, pulses, and oil seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
2. In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. Which of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past? (UPSC CSE, 2020)
(1) Minimum Support Price (2) Government’s trading (3) Government’s stockpiling (4) Consumer subsidies Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D
3. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? (UPSC GS1, 2020)
(1) Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops (2) Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (3) Social Capital development (4) Free electricity supply to farmers (5) Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system (6) Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 3 and 6 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: C
4. The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the (UPSC CSE, 2015)
(a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee Answer: A
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COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT (CAQM)
The 28th meeting of the full Commission of Air Quality Management in Delhi-NCR (CAQM) was held on 15.05.2026, under the Chairmanship of Shri Rajesh Verma. Key agenda items pertaining to prevention and control of air pollution in Delhi-NCR were deliberated upon and reviewed in detail during the meeting
- The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region (NCR) and nearby areas was initially established through an ordinance in 2020, which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament in 2021.
- Its primary mandate is to enhance coordination, conduct research, identify issues, and address challenges related to air quality and associated concerns.
- At its inception, the CAQM comprised 15 members, including current and former officials from the Ministry of Environment and other Union government departments, along with representatives from various State governments, NGOs, and other organizations. Currently, the commission, led by Rajesh Verma, has expanded to 27 members.
- The CAQM succeeded the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA), which was created by the Supreme Court in 1998. Unlike the CAQM, the EPCA lacked statutory authority, which experts criticized as limiting its ability to enforce compliance among defiant agencies.
- Nevertheless, several initiatives now overseen by the CAQM, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)—a framework of temporary emergency measures to combat air pollution—were originally implemented under the EPCA's guidance
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Powers of CAQM
The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, empowers the CAQM to undertake any necessary measures, issue directives, and address grievances aimed at safeguarding and enhancing air quality in the NCR and surrounding regions. According to Section 14 of the Act, the commission is authorized to take strict action against officials who fail to comply with its directives
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- The Supreme Court recently criticized the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for delays in enforcing stricter anti-pollution measures as Delhi's air quality worsened.
- Despite the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching hazardous levels, the CAQM postponed the implementation of Stage 4 measures under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), prompting the Court to question the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis.
- The justices emphasized that such measures should be triggered as soon as AQI levels indicate severe pollution to prevent further deterioration.
- The Court also highlighted systemic failures, including inadequate action against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, and criticized the CAQM for focusing on meetings without concrete enforcement of rules.
- It warned against scaling down measures prematurely and stressed the need for stricter penalties and immediate action to curb pollution sources effectively
- Although the CAQM formulates strategies and coordinates with various agencies, the actual implementation of these measures rests with the respective agencies.
- A CAQM official noted that the commission has significantly improved coordination and planning efforts.
- For instance, while paddy stubble burning—a major contributor to severe air pollution—occurs primarily in October and November, discussions with State officials begin as early as February and continue throughout the season.
- In 2022, the CAQM collaborated with Punjab and Haryana to develop action plans for managing stubble burning, which are reviewed and updated annually.
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For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA).
For Mains:
1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).
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LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE (LFPR)
1. Context
2. What is Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)?
- The labor force participation rate (LFPR) is a measure that refers to the percentage of the working-age population (typically defined as individuals aged 15 years and above) who are either employed or actively seeking employment.
- It is a commonly used indicator to understand the level of engagement of a country's population in the labor market.
- To calculate the LFPR, the number of individuals in the labor force (which includes both employed and unemployed individuals actively seeking work) is divided by the total working-age population and multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage.
- The labor force includes people who are currently employed, as well as those who are unemployed but actively looking for work.
- It does not include individuals who are not in the labor force, such as students, retirees, homemakers, or individuals who are not actively seeking employment.
- The LFPR provides insights into the proportion of the population that is economically active, which is important for assessing the level of labor market engagement, estimating potential labor supply, and evaluating changes in workforce dynamics over time.
3. LFPR and Unemployment Rate in India
- Unemployment Rate: The percentage of people who are unemployed and actively seeking work.
- LFPR (Labour Force Participation Rate): The percentage of the working-age population that is either employed or actively seeking employment.
- Importance of Unemployment Rate: Commonly used to assess the stress in the job market.
- India's Unique Situation:
- Low LFPR: India's LFPR has been consistently lower than the global average.
- Falling LFPR: India's LFPR has been declining over time.
4. Significance of LFPR
- Developing Economy Concern: A low and falling LFPR is unfavorable for a developing economy like India.
- Lack of Job Opportunities: Workers may opt out of the labor force due to prolonged unemployment and discouragement.
- The unemployment rate alone is insufficient to gauge India's labor market situation.
- LFPR provides a more comprehensive understanding of labor market engagement and workforce dynamics.
5. Falling LFPR
- India's LFPR has been continuously decreasing since 2016-17.
- Reached its lowest level in 2022-23.
- Despite fast economic growth (e.g., GDP growth of 7.2% in 2022-23), LFPR has been declining.
6. Low Female LFPR
- Female LFPR in India has dropped to just 8.8% in FY23.
- More than 90% of working-age women in India do not actively look for jobs.
- Significantly lower LFPR among women indicates gender-related challenges in accessing and participating in the labor market.
7. Key Observations
- The falling LFPR contradicts the country's economic growth rate.
- Female LFPR is particularly concerning, with a vast majority of women not seeking employment.
- Low LFPR and low female LFPR signify potential issues with job availability, gender inequality, and labor market participation in India.
8. Comparison of Labor Force Participation Rates in India and Other Countries
- CMIE vs. ILO: CMIE's measure of assessing the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is more stringent than that of the International Labour Organization (ILO).
- India's LFPR: CMIE estimated India's LFPR at 40% for 2022, while the ILO pegged it at 49%. Both measures indicate a low LFPR compared to other countries.
- Higher LFPR in other countries: According to the ILO model, several Latin American and Asian economies have significantly higher LFPRs than India.
- Indonesia had an LFPR of around 67% in 2022, while South Korea and Brazil had rates as high as 63-64%. Argentina, Bangladesh, and the Philippines recorded LFPRs in the range of 58-60%. Sri Lanka had over 51% of its population in the labor force.
- In contrast, India had less than half of its working-age population either employed or actively seeking employment, according to the data.
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For Prelims: Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), Labour force participation rate (LFPR), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), International Labour Organisation (ILO), and Unemployment rate.
For Mains: 1. What is Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and discuss the factors that have contributed to the Low LFPR in India? (250 Words)
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Previous year Question
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1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
Answer: C
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
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