CENSUS
1. Context
The Supreme Court on Wednesday said there was nothing wrong in the government of the day ascertaining caste as part of the nationwide Census exercise.
2. History of Census
- India had conducted the Census every 10 years since 1881, but in 2020, the decennial exercise for Census 2021 had to be postponed due to the pandemic.
- Though the government has not announced fresh dates for the Census, the groundwork is being laid and details are emerging about some of the features.
- It will be the first digital Census allowing citizens to "self-enumerate". The NPR (National Population Register) has been made compulsory for citizens who want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators.
- For this, the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) has designed a "self-enumeration, Aadhaar or mobile number will be mandatorily collected.
3. Status of the Census exercise
- A January 2 notification extending the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries in States until June 30 has ruled out the exercise at least till September.
- As preparation and training take at least three months, the Census will have to be pushed to next year.
- Around 30 lakh government officials will be assigned as enumerators and each will have the task to collect the details of 650-800 people through both online and offline modes, covering an estimated population of 135 crore people.
- The Lok Sabha election is due in April-May 2024 and it is unlikely that the Census will be carried out before that since the same workforce will be dedicated to the elections.
- The completion of both phases of the Census will take at least 11 months, even if done at an accelerated pace from October 1.
4. Holding up the Census
- One reason which is holding up the exercise is the amendments proposed to the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969.
- The government wants to have a centralised register of births and deaths that can be used to update the population register, electoral register, Aadhaar, ration card, passport and driving license databases.
- The centrally stored data will be updated in real-time without a human interface leading to addition and deletion from electoral rolls when an individual turns 18 and after an individual's death respectively.
- A Bill to link the births and deaths registered with the population register and others are expected to be tabled in the next session of Parliament.
5. NPR
- The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
- Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
- According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
- Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
- Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
- In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
- There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
- Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.
5.1. The current status of NPR
- The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
- It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
- In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
- The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
- For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
- The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
- The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
- The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
- Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
- The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
- The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
- The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.
6. Expected expenditure for Census
- The initial draft was prepared by the office of the Registrar General of India and circulated to key Ministries and the Prime Minister's Office called for the conduct of Census 2021 at a cost of ₹9, 275 crores and not the NPR.
- The draft Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) not was then revised and a financial provision of ₹4, 442.15 crores for updating the NPR was added on the directions of the MHA "subsequently".
- The proposal was cleared on August 16, 2019, and it received the Union Cabinet's nod on December 24, 2019.
- It was decided that the enumerator engaged for Census would also collect details for NPR.
- The Covid-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and since then both exercises are on hold.
- Now, the NPR has been made compulsory if citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own.
- The deleted Handbook said that it is "mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR".
- Census is also mandatory and giving false information is a punishable offence.
|
For Prelims: NPR, CAA, Census, Covid-19, Expenditure Finance Committee, Registrar General of India, Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969, The Treatise on Indian Censuses Since 1981, Assam,
For Mains:
1. How can citizens file Census details online? Explain the norms being laid down and discuss the reasons for National Population Register being made compulsory for those who want to fill out the form digitally. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
Prelims:
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2009)
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
3. Sinovac given for Covid-19 is a (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022)
A. Protein sub-unit
B. Non-replicating viral vector
C. Whole virus vaccine
D. mRNA vaccine
Answer: C
4. Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the Parliament which Include "The Macro Economic Framework Statement". The aforesaid document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC 2020)
A. Long-standing parliamentary convention
B. Article 112 and Article 110 (1) of the Constitution of India
C. Article 113 of the Constitution of India
D. Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003
Answer: D
5. Who is the Census Commissioner of India in 2021? (ICAR Technician 2022)
A. Dr Vivek Joshi
B. Dr C Chandramouli
C. Shri Sailesh
D. DK Sikri
Answer: A
6. The Registration of Birth and Death Act came into force in the year _____. (UPSSSC Junior Assistant 2020)
A. 1964 B. 1969 C. 1972 D.1981
Answer: B
7. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2022)
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Kerala
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Tripura
How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States?
A. Only one State
B. Only two States
C. Only three States
D. All four States
Answer: C
8. Consider the following rivers (UPSC 2014)
1. Barak
2. Lohit
3. Subansiri
Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?
A. 1 only B.2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains:
1. Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth. (UPSC 2014)
|
Source: The Hindu
CHANDRAYAAN-3
1. Context
THE FAMOUS ‘hop’ experiment performed by the Chandrayaan-3 lander on the Moon was not just about demonstrating Indian space agency ISRO’s ability to launch from the lunar surface.
2. Chandrayaan-3
- Chandrayaan-3 is the third lunar mission of the ISRO. It follows the Chandrayaan-1 and Chandrayaan-2 missions.
- The primary objective of Chandrayaan-3 is to achieve a successful landing on the Moon's surface, rectifying the setback faced by its predecessor, Chandrayaan-2, in 2019.
- The Chandrayaan-3 mission aims to demonstrate India's capability to soft-land a lander and rover on the lunar surface.
- By executing a precise landing, ISRO intends to showcase the technological advancements and expertise of the Indian space program.
- The mission will contribute to expanding our understanding of the Moon, its geological features, and its evolution.
- To ensure the success of Chandrayaan-3, ISRO has incorporated improvements and modifications based on the lessons learned from Chandrayaan-2.
- These include enhancements in the design and functioning of the lander and rover, as well as improvements in navigation and landing systems.
- Rigorous testing and evaluations have been conducted to address the shortcomings identified during the previous mission.
- It can be expected that they will be similar to those carried by Chandrayaan-2, aiming to study lunar topography, mineralogy, surface composition, and the Moon's environment.
- These instruments will gather valuable data to further our knowledge of the Moon and contribute to scientific research.
Image Source: India Today
3. Chandrayaan-2 Mission and its Objectives and Discoveries
- The Chandrayaan-2 mission, launched on July 22, 2019, had a multifaceted objective.
- While the most discussed goal was to demonstrate the ability to soft-land a lander and rover on the unexplored south pole of the Moon, it also aimed to expand lunar scientific knowledge through various studies.
- These studies included detailed investigations of topography, seismography, mineral identification and distribution, surface chemical composition, topsoil thermo-physical characteristics and the lunar atmosphere composition.
4. Chandrayaan 2 Orbiter
- Despite the challenges faced by the Vikram lunar lander, which crash-landed on the Moon's surface on September 6, 2019, the Mission's orbiter remained fully operational.
- The orbiter gathered a wealth of new information about the Moon and its environment, significantly contributing to our understanding of the lunar surface, sub-surface and exosphere.
- The data collected by the orbiter added valuable insights into the exploration of permanently shadowed regions and the study of craters and boulders beneath the regolith.
5. Reasons for Failure of the Vikram Lander
- The landing attempt of the Chandrayaan-2 Mission's Vikram lander encountered a setback when ISRO lost contact shortly before the scheduled touchdown on September 7.
- The lander was decelerating but failed to slow down to the required safe landing speed of 2 meters per second.
- Designed to absorb an impact even at 5 meters per second, Vikram hit the Moon's surface at a much higher speed, resulting in damage to itself and its instruments.
- The crash landing of the Vikram lander prevented the successful demonstration of soft landing technology in space.
- However, ISRO identified and rectified the small error responsible for the failure, paving the way for the upcoming Chandrayaan-3 mission to showcase this technology without any glitches.
- Furthermore, the crash landing also resulted in missed opportunities for gathering additional data about the lunar terrain, composition and mineralogy.
6. The Way Forward
- The lander Vikram and rover Pragyaan was equipped with instruments to conduct surface observations, which, combined with the orbiter's support, could have provided diverse sets of data contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the Moon.
- With Chandrayaan-3 on the horizon, ISRO aims to overcome previous challenges, achieve a successful soft landing on the Moon, and advance scientific exploration by collecting valuable information about our celestial neighbour.
|
For Prelims: Vikram lander, Chandrayaan-3, Chandrayaan-2, Moon, ISRO, lunar mission, celestial body,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the primary objective of Chandrayaan-3 and its significance in India's space exploration efforts. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. In the context of space technology, what is "Bhuvan", recently in the news? (UPSC 2010)
A. A mini satellite, launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
B. The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II
C. A geoportal of ISRO with 3 D imaging capabilities of India
D. A space telescope developed by India
Answer: C 2. What will be India's second moon mission by ISRO? (Maharashtra Talathi 2019) A. Chandrayaan 1 B. Chandrayaan 1.A C. Chandrayaan 2 D. Chandrayaan 3 Answer: C 3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019) A. Maharashtra B. Rajasthan C. Kerala D. Andhra Pradesh Answer: D 4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true? (CTET 2022)
A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon
B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon.
E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth
1. A, B 2. B, C 3. C, D 4. A, E Answer: 1 5. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020) A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research Answer: A 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020) A. Voyager-2 B. New Horizons C. LISA Pathfinder D. Evolved LISA Answer: D
1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically (UPSC GS3, 2017)
|
Source: The Indian Express
HYPERSONIC MISSILE
1. Context
India on 9th May, achieved a major breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) accomplished a 1,200-second runtime of its actively cooled scramjet full-scale combustor. The test was conducted at the Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) facility in Hyderabad, building on the successful 700-plus second test carried out in January.
2. Key takeaways
- The missile is a hypersonic cruise weapon capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, or approximately 6,100 km per hour, for sustained durations.
- This capability has been made possible through an advanced supersonic air-breathing propulsion system that employs indigenously developed liquid hydrocarbon endothermic fuel, high-temperature Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), and sophisticated manufacturing technologies.
- It is equipped with an advanced actively cooled scramjet combustor featuring a novel flame-stabilisation mechanism that enables a continuous combustion process even when air flows through the combustor at speeds exceeding 1.5 km per second.
- The Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) has been jointly developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory and facilities under the Department of Science and Technology.
- This specialised coating is engineered to endure the extremely high temperatures generated during hypersonic flight. The newly developed ceramic-based TBC possesses superior thermal resistance and can function at temperatures exceeding the melting point of steel.
3. What are Hypersonic missiles?
- Hypersonic missiles are advanced weapon systems capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, which means at least five times faster than the speed of sound.
- Depending on atmospheric conditions, this translates to speeds exceeding nearly 6,000 km per hour.
- Their combination of extremely high speed, manoeuvrability, and lower flight trajectory makes them difficult to detect, track, and intercept compared to conventional ballistic missiles.
- These weapons are considered a major advancement in modern military technology because they can rapidly strike targets while reducing the reaction time available to defence systems.
- Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are first launched into the atmosphere using a rocket booster. After reaching a certain altitude, the glide vehicle separates from the rocket and glides toward its target at hypersonic speeds
4. Cruise vs Ballistic missiles
- Ballistic missiles operate on the principle of projectile motion to deliver warheads to designated targets. They remain powered only during the initial phase of flight, after which they travel largely under the influence of gravity and aerodynamic forces.
- These missiles are generally classified according to their operational range and may be equipped with either conventional or nuclear warheads.
- A major feature that distinguishes hypersonic cruise missiles from ballistic missiles is their manoeuvrability.
- Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a predictable ballistic path, hypersonic missiles can alter their trajectory during flight and navigate dynamically toward their intended targets.
- Cruise missiles typically travel at relatively low altitudes close to the Earth’s surface, whereas ballistic missiles move along a high-altitude parabolic trajectory.
- Because ballistic missiles follow a more predictable flight path, they are comparatively easier to detect and track.
- In contrast, the high manoeuvrability and low-altitude flight profile of cruise missiles make them more challenging for air defence systems to intercept
5. Scramjet vs Ramjet
- Air-breathing propulsion technology has the potential to revolutionise launch vehicle design.
- According to Indian Space Research Organisation, various global space agencies are actively developing three major categories of air-breathing engines: Ramjet, Scramjet, and Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ).
- In ramjet propulsion systems, the engine relies on the vehicle’s forward speed to compress incoming air for combustion, eliminating the need for a rotating compressor.
- Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber, where it combines with the compressed hot air and ignites. Since ramjets cannot generate thrust at low speeds, they require external assistance, such as rocket boosters, to accelerate the vehicle to operational speed.
- ISRO notes that ramjet engines perform most effectively at supersonic velocities of around Mach 3 and can function up to approximately Mach 6.
- However, their efficiency declines once the vehicle enters the hypersonic speed regime.
- A Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, commonly known as a Scramjet, is a more advanced form of ramjet engine designed for efficient operation at hypersonic speeds.
- Unlike conventional ramjets, scramjets enable combustion while the airflow inside the engine remains supersonic.
- In this system, air enters through the front intake, fuel combusts in the central chamber, and high-speed exhaust gases exit from the rear to generate thrust.
- A Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) combines the operational features of both ramjet and scramjet technologies.
- Within the Mach 4 to Mach 8 speed range, the engine transitions from ramjet mode to scramjet mode, allowing it to function efficiently under both subsonic and supersonic combustion conditions
6. Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system
- On May 7, the Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with the Indian Air Force successfully conducted the maiden flight test of the TARA system, a technology designed to convert unguided munitions into guided weapons.
- The TARA glide weapon system mainly functions as a modular attachment that can be integrated with a standard unguided warhead. Once fitted, it enables the weapon to glide across extended distances and engage targets with greater accuracy.
- The system is understood to employ a combination of inertial navigation technology and satellite-based guidance for directing the missile toward its designated target.
- Instead of depending on a rocket propulsion mechanism, the TARA system operates through a glide-based approach. This design makes the weapon comparatively lightweight and economical while also enhancing its operational range.
- Through this technology, conventional unguided or gravity bombs can be upgraded into precision-guided smart munitions with minimal modification. As a result, the need for developing completely new missile platforms can be significantly reduced
|
For Prelims: Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system, Ballistic missiles, Hypersonic missiles
For Mains: GS III - Science and technology
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023)
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
Source: Indianexpress
RENEWABLE ENERGY
1. Context
Elevating their bilateral ties to a strategic partnership, India and the Netherlands have agreed on a five-year roadmap (2026-30), and signed as many as 17 pacts including agreements on semiconductors, critical minerals, migration and mobility, water and renewable energy.
2. Why use Renewable energy
- Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars.
- It’s convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a limited supply of these fuels on Earth.
- We’re using them much more rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run out.
- And because of safety concerns and waste disposal problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020.
- In the meantime, the nation’s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 per cent during the next 20 years.
- Renewable energy can help fill the gap
- Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment.
- We often call renewable energy technologies “clean” or “green” because they produce few if any pollutants.
- Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and contributing to global warming.
- Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth’s average temperature has risen in the past century.
- If this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often.
- Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned.
- These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment—and humans.
- Air pollution contributes to diseases like asthma.
- Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.
- Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security.
- Replacing some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and strengthen our energy security.
- Renewable energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time.
- There are many ways to use renewable energy.
- Most of us already use renewable energy in our daily lives.
2.1.Hydropower
- Hydropower is our most mature and largest source of renewable power, producing about 10 per cent of the nation’s electricity.
- Existing hydropower capacity is about 77,000 megawatts (MW). Hydropower plants convert the energy in flowing water into electricity.
- The most common form of hydropower uses a dam on a river to retain a large reservoir of water. Water is released through turbines to generate power.
- “Run of the river” systems, however, divert water from the river and direct it through a pipeline to a turbine.
- Hydropower plants produce no air emissions but can affect water quality and wildlife habitats.
2.2.Bioenergy
- Bioenergy is the energy derived from biomass (organic matter), such as plants. If you’ve ever burned wood in a fireplace or campfire, you’ve used bioenergy.
- But we don’t get all of our biomass resources directly from trees or other plants.
- Many industries, such as those involved in construction or the processing of agricultural products, can create large quantities of unused or residual biomass, which can serve as a bioenergy source.
2.3.Geothermal Energy
- The Earth’s core, 4,000 miles below the surface, can reach temperatures of 9000° F.
- This heat—geothermal energy—flows outward from the core, heating the surrounding area, which can form underground reservoirs of hot water and steam.
- These reservoirs can be tapped for a variety of uses, such as to generate electricity or heat buildings.
- By using geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), we can even take advantage of the shallow ground’s stable temperature for heating and cooling buildings.
2.4.Solar Energy
- Solar technologies tap directly into the infinite power of the sun and use that energy to produce heat, light, and power.
2.5. Wind Energy
- For hundreds of years, people have used windmills to harness the wind’s energy.
- Today’s wind turbines, which operate differently from windmills, are a much more efficient technology.
- Wind turbine technology may look simple: the wind spins turbine blades around a central hub; the hub is connected to a shaft, which powers a generator to make electricity.
- However, turbines are highly sophisticated power systems that capture the wind’s energy using new blade designs or airfoils.
- Modern, mechanical drive systems, combined with advanced generators, convert that energy into electricity.
- Wind turbines that provide electricity to the utility grid range in size from 50 kW to 6
- Wind energy has been the fastest growing source of energy since 1990.
2.6.Ocean Energy
- The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun’s heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
- Ocean thermal energy can be used for many applications, including electricity generation.
- Electricity conversion systems use either the warm surface water or boil the seawater to turn a turbine, which activates a generator.
- The electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical devices.
- A dam is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines and activating a generator.
- Meanwhile, wave energy uses mechanical power to directly activate a generator or to transfer to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine/generator.
2.7.Hydrogen
- Hydrogen is high in energy, yet its use as a fuel produces water as the only emission.
- Hydrogen is the universe’s most abundant element and also its simplest.
- A hydrogen atom consists of only one proton and one electron.
- Despite its abundance and simplicity, it doesn’t occur naturally as a gas on the Earth.
- Today, industry produces more than 4 trillion cubic feet of hydrogen annually.
- Most of this hydrogen is produced through a process called reforming, which involves the application of heat to separate hydrogen from carbon. Researchers are developing highly efficient, advanced reformers to produce hydrogen from natural gas for what’s called Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells.
3. Steps were taken by the government to promote Renewable energy
The Indian renewable energy sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world. India was ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and fourth in renewable power installed capacity, as of 2020.
3.1.Distribution of prominent renewable energy Hubs
- Rajasthan
- Gujarat
- Andhra Pradesh
- Karnataka
- Telangana
- Tamil Nadu
3.2.Steps taken
- Permitting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) up to 100 per cent under the automatic route,
- Waiver of Inter-State Transmission System (ISTS) charges for inter-state sale of solar and wind power for projects to be commissioned by 30th June 2025,
- Declaration of trajectory for Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) up to the year 2022,
- Setting up of Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks to provide land and transmission to RE developers on a plug-and-play basis,
- Schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM), Solar Rooftop Phase II, 12000 MW CPSU Scheme Phase II, etc,
- Laying of new transmission lines and creating new sub-station capacity under the Green Energy Corridor Scheme for evacuation of renewable power,
- Setting up of Project Development Cell for attracting and facilitating investments,
- Standard Bidding Guidelines for tariff-based competitive bidding process for procurement of Power from Grid Connected Solar PV and Wind Projects.
4. Employment Generation
- Deployment of large-scale renewable energy (RE) has the potential to create numerous employment opportunities in rural India in the coming decades. By 2030, it is projected that the clean-energy sectors could provide jobs for around one million individuals in the country.
- However, the expansion of RE may have significant impacts on communities reliant on the land, involving changes in land use, modifications to ecosystems, shifts in livelihoods, and overall effects on land productivity.
- As India progresses in scaling up RE, striking a balance between these interests may result in project commissioning delays, contributing to a waning interest among developers in RE tenders.
- In 2020, wind developers, facing setbacks such as delays in land allocation, sought to terminate power-purchase agreements for approximately 565 MW wind capacity signed with the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), prompting a decline in developers' enthusiasm for RE projects. Commissioning delays not only pose substantial financial risks but also jeopardize the reputation of RE developers.
- In the pursuit of responsible RE deployment and the enhancement of communities in and around project sites, many developers actively support local development activities and community-led programs through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.
- As an illustration, Tata Power Solar has established integrated vocational training programs for women and youth in multiple project sites.
- Given the pivotal role of project developers in interacting with communities during land acquisition, construction, and operational phases, they play a crucial role in driving responsible practices. Additionally, regulators and investors prioritize assessing the responsible practices of new projects.
- To encourage all developers to contribute to the rapidly growing RE ecosystem and promote responsible practices, two essential prerequisites need to be addressed
5. Way forward
The push for responsible energy is not to create new barriers for developers but is with the benefit of hindsight, that energy projects have externalities that must be addressed at the outset before they become entrenched. Responsible RE will strengthen the renewable ecosystem in India, and address roadblocks in siting, public acceptance and find the right synergy between energy security, society and the environment
|
For Prelims: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains: General Studies II: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSE, 2016) Answer (b) 2.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023) Answer (b) 3. Consider the following activities: (UPSC CSE, 2023) Answer (c) 4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2025) Answer (c) |
Source: The Hindu
INDIA-UAE
1. Context
Deepening bilateral relations amid the crisis in West Asia, India and the UAE signed a slew of pacts Friday including a framework for a strategic defence partnership, storage of 30 million barrels in Indian strategic petroleum reserves, supply of LPG and a ship repair cluster in Gujarat’s Vadinar.
2. India and UAE
ndia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have historically enjoyed friendly and cooperative relations, which have strengthened over time. The relationship encompasses various areas such as trade and investment, defense and security, energy cooperation, cultural exchanges, and people-to-people contacts.
Here are some key points about the India-UAE relations:
-
Economic Relations: The UAE is India's third-largest trading partner and one of the major investors in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries has been growing steadily, with a focus on sectors like energy, information technology, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and agriculture. The UAE is also a significant source of remittances for India due to the large Indian diaspora residing in the UAE.
-
Investment: The UAE has made substantial investments in India across sectors such as infrastructure, real estate, hospitality, logistics, and renewable energy. The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) and the Dubai-based DP World are prominent examples of UAE investments in India.
-
Energy Cooperation: The UAE is a crucial source of energy for India. The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) supplies crude oil to Indian refineries, and both countries have explored opportunities for collaboration in the energy sector, including renewable energy projects.
-
Defense and Security: India and the UAE have enhanced cooperation in defense and security matters. They conduct joint military exercises, exchange intelligence, and cooperate in countering terrorism and maritime security. The UAE has also supported India's efforts to combat terrorism and extradite wanted individuals.
-
Strategic Partnership: In 2015, India and the UAE elevated their bilateral relationship to a "Comprehensive Strategic Partnership." This designation reflects the deepening ties and shared interests between the two countries.
-
Cultural Exchanges and People-to-People Contacts: There is a significant Indian community in the UAE, comprising professionals, skilled workers, and businesspeople. Both countries have encouraged cultural exchanges, tourism, and educational cooperation to strengthen people-to-people contacts and promote mutual understanding.
-
Diplomatic Engagements: High-level visits between India and the UAE have been frequent, reflecting the importance both countries attach to the relationship. The leaders of both countries have engaged in regular dialogues to enhance bilateral cooperation and address common challenges.
3. Why UAE is important to India?
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) holds significant importance to India for several reasons:
-
Economic Relations: The UAE is one of India's major trading partners and a significant source of investment. Bilateral trade between the two countries has been growing steadily, with the UAE being India's third-largest trading partner. The UAE's investments in India span various sectors, including infrastructure, real estate, hospitality, logistics, and renewable energy. This economic partnership contributes to India's economic growth and development.
-
Energy Security: The UAE is an important source of energy for India. It supplies crude oil to Indian refineries, helping to meet India's energy needs. Ensuring a stable and reliable energy supply is crucial for India's growing economy, and the UAE plays a significant role in fulfilling India's energy requirements.
-
Indian Diaspora: The UAE is home to a large Indian diaspora, comprising professionals, skilled workers, and businesspeople. The Indian community in the UAE plays a vital role in strengthening people-to-people ties and contributing to the UAE's economy through their work and remittances. The UAE's favorable policies towards the Indian community and its contributions have fostered a sense of goodwill and mutual understanding between the two countries.
-
Defense and Security Cooperation: India and the UAE have been strengthening their defense and security cooperation in recent years. They conduct joint military exercises, share intelligence, and collaborate in countering terrorism and ensuring maritime security. The UAE's support to India's counter-terrorism efforts and extradition of wanted individuals have been crucial in addressing shared security concerns.
-
Strategic Location: The UAE's geographic location at the crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa makes it an important hub for trade, connectivity, and investment. Its modern infrastructure, world-class ports, and air connectivity make it an attractive destination for Indian businesses looking to expand their reach globally. The UAE's strategic location serves as a gateway for India's trade with the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond.
-
Cultural Exchanges and Tourism: The UAE and India have fostered cultural exchanges and tourism, facilitating people-to-people contacts and enhancing mutual understanding. Millions of Indians visit the UAE for business, tourism, and religious purposes, strengthening the cultural and social ties between the two countries.
-
Diplomatic Engagements: India and the UAE maintain regular high-level engagements, with frequent visits by leaders and officials from both sides. These interactions help in deepening bilateral relations, addressing common challenges, and exploring new avenues of cooperation..
4. Way forward
Overall, the UAE's economic significance, energy cooperation, large Indian diaspora, defense collaboration, strategic location, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic engagements make it an important partner for India across various spheres. The two countries continue to strengthen their relationship for mutual benefit and shared prosperity.
|
For Prelims: India-UAE, Global food security, G20, I2U2, Public Distribution System, POSHAN Abhiyaan, Covid, Conflict and Climate, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement,
For Mains:
1. Discuss India's role in ensuring global food security during the pandemic and post-pandemic times. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2020)
1. India's merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports.
2. India's imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers, and machinery have decreased in recent years.
3. India's exports of services are more than its imports of services.
4. India suffers from an overall trade/current deficit.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 4 only C. 3 only D. 1, 3 and 4 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following countries: (UPSC 2018)
Which of the above are among the ‘free-trade partners’ of ASEAN? (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 (b) 3, 4, 5 and 6 (c) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (d) 2, 3, 4 and 6 Answer: C 3. The term ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership’ often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as (UPSC 2016) (a) G20 (b) ASEAN (c) SCO (d) SAARC Answer: B 4. The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to ( UPSC 2015) (a) Central Asia (b) Middle East (c) South-East Asia (d) Central Africa Answer: B 5. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (UPSC 2017)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 4 only Answer: A |
Source: indianexpress
RETAIL INFLATION
1. Context
Retail inflation quickened to a 13-month high of 3.5% in April 2026, although still coming in lower than what was expected by most economists. The price rise was largely driven by higher food inflation as well as higher prices at restaurants as they passed on higher fuel prices to consumers.
2. What is Inflation?
- It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
- In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
- Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.
3. Retail Inflation
Consumers often directly buy from retailers. So, the inflation experienced at retail reflects the actual price rise in the country. It also shows the cost of living better. In India, the index that reflects the inflation rate at the retail level is known as Consumer Price Index (CPI). Unlike WPI, CPI includes both goods and services. CPI is used to calculate the Dearness Allowance (DA) for government employees.
4. How Inflation is measured?
- In India, inflation is primarily measured by two main indices- WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index), Which measures Wholesale and retail-level price changes, respectively.
- The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food, medical care, education, electronics, etc, which Indian consumers buy for use.
- On the other hand, the goods or services sold by businesses to smaller businesses for selling further are captured by the WPI.
- Both WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) are used to measure inflation in India.
5. What is the Inflation Target?
- Under Section 45ZA, in consultation with the RBI Act, the Central Government determines the inflation target in terms of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), once in five years and notifies it in the Official Gazette.
- Accordingly, on August 5, 2016, the Central Government notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 percent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 percent.
- On March 31, 2021, the Central Government retained the inflation target and the tolerance band for the next 5-year period-April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2026.
- Section 45ZB of the RBI Act provides for the constitution of a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy rate required to achieve the inflation target.
6. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
- The MPC is a statutory and institutionalized framework under the RBI Act, of 1934, for maintaining price stability, keeping in mind the objective of growth. It was created in 2016.
- It was created to bring transparency and accountability in deciding monetary policy.
- MPC determines the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target.
- The committee comprises six members and Governor RBI acts as an ex-officio chairman. Three members are from RBI and three are selected by the government. The inflation target is to be set once every five years. It is set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
- The current inflation target is pegged at 4% with -2/+2 tolerance till March 31, 2021.
7. What Caused the drop in Inflation?
- Retail Inflation or price gains based on the Consumer Price Index, slowed to 6.77 % last month, from September's 7.41%, aided by an appreciable deceleration in food price inflation.
- The year-on-year inflation based on the Consumer Food Price Index eased by almost 160 basis points in October, to 7.01%, from the preceding month's 8.60%, helped by a 'decline in prices of vegetables, fruits, pulses and oils, and fats', the Government said.
- With the food and beverages sub-index representing almost 46% of the CPI's weight, the slowdown in food price gains understandably steered overall inflation lower even as price gains in three other essential categories, namely clothing, and footwear, housing, and health remained either little changed from September or quickened.
- Inflation at the Wholesale Prices Level also continued to decelerate, with the headline reading easing into single digits for the first time in 19 months. A favorable base effect along with a distinct cooling in international prices of commodities including crude oil and steel amid gathering uncertainty in advanced economies was largely instrumental in tempering wholesale price gains.
8. Recent Measures by the Government
To soften the prices of edible oils and pulses, tariffs on imported items have been rationalized from time to time. The stock limits on edible oils are also maintained, to avoid hoarding.
The Government has taken trade-related measures on wheat and rice to keep domestic supplies steady and curb the rise in prices.
The impact of these measures is expected to be felt more significantly in the coming months.
For Prelims & Mains
|
For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words)
2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4
3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall.
(b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks.
(c) Central bank is following an easy money policy.
(d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.
4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates.
2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 3 only D. 2 and 3 only 5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.
Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis.
With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021)
1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices.
2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B
|
Source: The Hindu
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)
1. Context
The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026, disregard federalism and embody a technocratic vision of environmental governance, insufficiently attentive to ground realities; as framed, they risk producing blurred accountability, unproductive compliance work, and paper reporting rather than cleaner cities and villages
2. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are institutions of local self-governance that manage the affairs of urban areas, such as cities and towns. They play a crucial role in the administration and development of urban areas. ULBs are established to ensure efficient delivery of civic amenities and services to urban residents. Here are the key aspects of Urban Local Bodies:
-
Types of Urban Local Bodies:
- Municipal Corporations: These are established in larger urban areas with significant populations and are responsible for providing a wide range of services. They have a Mayor, a municipal commissioner, and elected representatives. Examples include the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai and the Delhi Municipal Corporation.
- Municipal Councils: These are set up in medium-sized urban areas. They provide a narrower range of services compared to municipal corporations and are headed by a Chairperson. Examples include the Mysore City Municipal Council.
- Nagar Panchayats: These are found in smaller urban areas or transitional areas that are in the process of becoming urbanized. They are smaller than municipal councils and serve as a basic unit of local governance.
| Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) levy user fees or SWM cess as per the provisions of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. According to these guidelines, ULBs must collect user fees/cess for SWM services provisions provided. ULBs typically charge about ₹30-50 per month as SWM cess, which is collected along with property tax. ULBs are now considering revising these rates and imposing higher charges on bulk waste generators to meet a portion of the costs incurred in providing SWM services |
3. What are the Charges?
- Providing Solid Waste Management (SWM) services is a complex and resource-intensive task. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) typically allocate around 80% of their workforce and up to 50% of their annual budgets to deliver SWM services to city residents.
- In a city like Bangalore, each urban resident generates approximately 0.6 kg of waste per day, amounting to 0.2 tonnes per person annually. Overall, Bangalore produces about 5,000 tonnes of solid waste daily. Managing this volume requires around 5,000 door-to-door waste collection vehicles, 600 compactors, and roughly 20,000 sanitation workers (Paurakarmikas).
- SWM services consist of four main components: collection, transportation, processing, and disposal. ULBs often combine collection and transportation into one package, and processing and disposal into another. Collection and transportation are particularly resource and labor-intensive, consuming about 85-90% of the SWM budget, while only 10-15% is allocated to processing and disposal of waste
4. Solid Waste Mechanism in India
Solid Waste Management (SWM) in India involves a systematic approach to managing the collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of waste generated in urban areas. Here is an overview of the SWM mechanism in India:
Regulatory Framework
India's SWM practices are governed by several key regulations:
- Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules provide comprehensive guidelines for urban local bodies (ULBs) on managing solid waste, emphasizing segregation at source, decentralized processing, and safe disposal.
- Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules regulate the use, manufacture, and recycling of plastic products.
- Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016: These rules address the management and handling of hazardous waste.
Components of SWM
Collection
- Door-to-Door Collection: ULBs often implement door-to-door waste collection systems to ensure all household waste is collected efficiently.
- Segregation at Source: Residents are encouraged to segregate waste into biodegradable (wet) and non-biodegradable (dry) categories.
- Community Bins and Collection Points: Strategically placed bins and collection points are used in areas where door-to-door collection is not feasible.
Transportation
- Primary Collection Vehicles: These include handcarts, auto tippers, and tricycles used for door-to-door collection.
- Secondary Collection Vehicles: Larger vehicles like compactors and trucks transport waste from collection points to processing facilities.
Processing
- Composting: Biodegradable waste is processed into compost, which can be used as organic fertilizer.
- Vermiculture: Organic waste is converted into vermicompost using earthworms.
- Recycling: Dry waste such as plastics, paper, and metals are sorted and sent to recycling units.
Disposal
- Sanitary Landfills: Engineered landfills are designed to safely dispose of residual waste while minimizing environmental impact.
- Waste-to-Energy Plants: These facilities convert non-recyclable waste into energy through incineration or other processes.
5. Government Initiatives
- Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission): Launched in 2014, this mission aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage and promote cleanliness, including effective SWM.
- Smart Cities Mission: Focuses on sustainable and inclusive development, including modernizing urban infrastructure for better SWM.
- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Aims to provide basic services (e.g., water supply, sewerage) to households and build amenities in cities, promoting sustainable urban development, including SWM
6. What are the challenges?
- Solid waste in Indian cities comprises approximately 55-60% wet biodegradable material and 40-45% non-biodegradable material.
- Only about 1-2% of the dry waste is recyclable, with the majority being non-recyclable and non-biodegradable.
- While 55% of the wet waste has the potential to be converted into organic compost or biogas, the actual yield is as low as 10-12%, making these processes financially unfeasible.
- Typically, the operational revenue from waste processing facilities covers only 35-40% of operational expenses, with the remainder subsidized by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
- In addition to financial constraints, ULBs encounter several challenges in Solid Waste Management (SWM) services.
- These include managing open dumping sites and drains, preventing littering, dealing with seasonal variations in waste generation, and conducting sweeping operations.
- Disposing of non-compostable and non-recyclable dry waste, such as single-use plastics, textile waste, and inert materials, is costly because these materials must be transported to cement factories or waste-to-energy projects located 400-500 km from cities.
- In large cities like Bangalore, about 15% of the budget is allocated to SWM—around ₹1,643 crore out of a total ₹11,163 crore budget—while the revenue from SWM services is minimal, at approximately ₹20 lakh per year.
- Smaller cities may spend up to 50% of their budgets on SWM but also generate negligible revenue. As a result, ULBs impose an SWM cess to cover a portion of these costs
7.Way Forward
Although collection and transportation of waste generate no revenue, several strategies can reduce overall expenditure on SWM and lower user charges. These are segregation of waste at source, reducing single-use plastic, decentralised composting initiatives, Information, Education and Awareness (IEC) to prevent open littering, and asking bulk waste generators to process their own waste.
Source: The Hindu
