SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
1. Context
The Supreme Court recently upheld the powers of the Election Commission (EC) to conduct special intensive revision (SIR) of the electoral rolls in Bihar. It also upheld the procedure followed by the EC.
2. What is the Special Intensive Revision?
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
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During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
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3. Election Commission of India, its powers and functions
- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
4. How is SIR different from the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
5. What are the concerns related to SIR?
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
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Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
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Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
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Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
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This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
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Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
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Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
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Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
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Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
6. Way Forward
While the Special Intensive Revision is essential for ensuring clean and updated electoral rolls, its effectiveness depends on transparent procedures, proper training, digital accuracy, and public awareness.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
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For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
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Source: Indianexpress
INDIA'S LABOUR MARKET
1. Context
Every year, about 7-10 million young Indians enter the labour market. They are better educated than any generation before them — the average years of formal schooling for those aged 15 and above has reached 10 years nationally — and with hopes and expectations to match.The recently released Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2025 report offers some key insights.
2. Recent trends in Employment
- India’s labour market indicators remain strong, with the Labour Force Participation Rate recorded at 59%, the Workforce Participation Rate at 57%, and unemployment at only 3%.
- Youth unemployment has shown a downward trend since 2024 in both rural and urban regions. In addition, successive Monthly PLFS reports during 2025 highlight a steady rise in women’s workforce participation.
- Rural female LFPR continued to improve through September 2025, reaching the highest level observed since May, indicating a consistent positive trend across multiple survey cycles.
- Employment quality has likewise improved over time. The proportion of workers engaged in regular salaried jobs increased from 22% to 24%, benefiting both men and women. At the same time, the share of self-employed workers declined from 58% to 56%.
- Since salaried employment generally offers greater income stability and social security benefits, this transition represents one of the most significant developments reflected in the 2025 labour data.
- Income patterns further support these improvements, especially for women workers. Earnings among women in regular salaried jobs rose by 7%, slightly higher than the 6% increase recorded for men.
- In self-employment, women’s earnings increased by 9% compared to 8% for men. Similarly, women engaged in casual labour witnessed a 5% rise in wages, whereas male wages in this category remained largely stagnant.
- Despite these gains, gender disparities in earnings continue to persist. Available data suggests that women receive nearly 76% of male earnings in salaried occupations, about 69% in casual work, and only 36% in self-employment.
- Although significant gaps remain, the growing movement toward salaried employment is gradually generating more meaningful economic benefits for women.
- Economic transformation is also reshaping employment patterns. Agriculture now accounts for 43% of total employment, while manufacturing and services contribute roughly 12% and 13%, respectively.
- Increasing numbers of young workers, especially women, are joining manufacturing and service industries.
- Moreover, occupational segregation based on caste and gender is less pronounced among younger generations than older ones, reflecting the long-term impact of improved educational access and greater social mobility, which are now contributing to more inclusive labour market outcomes
3. Gaps in Skills and Job Creation
- A major concern continues to be the transition from education to employment. India has greatly increased access to higher education, enabling students from a wider range of economic backgrounds to pursue tertiary studies.
- However, important gaps still persist. Between 2004 and 2023, nearly 5 million graduates entered the labour market every year, yet only around 2.8 million were able to obtain employment of any form.
- Insufficient access to structured skill development remains another obstacle. Merely 4% of people in the 15–59 age group have undergone formal vocational or technical training.
- At the same time, labour force participation among trained individuals is considerably higher — about 83% for men and 51% for women — highlighting the strong connection between skill acquisition and employment opportunities. This demonstrates the need to expand and strengthen skill-training initiatives on a much larger scale.
- Ensuring long-term participation of women in the workforce is another critical issue. While men outside the labour force mostly identified education as the reason for non-participation, women largely pointed to childcare and domestic responsibilities.
- This reflects deeper structural inequalities arising from the unequal burden of unpaid household work.
- For example, self-employed urban men work nearly 17.5 hours more per week than women, while among regular salaried employees the gap stands at roughly 7.9 hours weekly, illustrating the disproportionate dual burden of paid and unpaid labour carried by women.
- A further concern relates to the NEET population — youth who are neither in education, employment, nor training. Approximately one-fourth of individuals aged 15–29 belong to this category.
- Since they are excluded from official unemployment statistics, the scale of the issue often remains understated. If not addressed promptly, prolonged disengagement may push many young people into long-term detachment from the labour market
4. What is the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)?
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is India’s main survey for understanding the condition of employment and unemployment in the country. It is conducted by the National Statistical Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
- The survey was introduced in 2017 to provide regular and reliable information about the labour market, replacing the earlier employment surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office.
- The need for PLFS arose because India’s economy and labour market were changing rapidly, but employment data was not available frequently enough.
- Policymakers required updated information to understand how many people were working, how many were unemployed, and how labour patterns were changing across rural and urban areas.
- To address this gap, PLFS was designed to provide both annual and quarterly estimates on employment-related indicators.
- The survey studies the participation of people in economic activities. It measures how many individuals are employed, how many are actively searching for work, and how many remain outside the labour force.
- Through this, it calculates important indicators such as the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR). These indicators help in assessing the overall health of the economy and the availability of jobs.
- PLFS also provides detailed insights into the nature of employment in India. It classifies workers into categories such as self-employed persons, regular salaried employees, and casual labourers.
- This distinction is important because different forms of employment offer different levels of income security, social protection, and job stability. For example, regular salaried employment is generally considered more secure than casual labour.
- Another important feature of PLFS is that it captures differences across gender, age groups, education levels, and regions.
- It highlights issues such as women’s participation in the workforce, youth unemployment, rural–urban disparities, and shifts in employment from agriculture to manufacturing and services. Because of this, the survey has become an essential tool for analysing structural changes in the Indian economy.
- The survey uses different approaches to measure employment status. The “Usual Status” method examines a person’s employment situation over a longer reference period, while the “Current Weekly Status” method looks at whether a person worked for at least one hour during the previous seven days. These methods help provide a broader and more accurate picture of employment conditions.
- Today, PLFS serves as the most important official source of labour market data in India. Governments, economists, researchers, and policymakers rely on it to formulate employment policies, assess economic performance, design welfare programmes, and evaluate the impact of reforms on workers and livelihoods
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Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP)
Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) refers to the proportion of women in the working-age population who are either employed or actively seeking employment. In simple terms, it measures how many women are participating in economic activities within a country. It is usually expressed through the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR), which indicates the percentage of women who are part of the labour force compared to the total female population within a specified age group. Women who are working in jobs, self-employment, farming, business activities, or even looking for work are included in the labour force. However, women who are neither working nor searching for employment are considered outside the labour force. Female labour force participation is considered an important indicator of economic development, gender equality, and social progress. A higher participation rate generally reflects better access to education, employment opportunities, skill development, mobility, and financial independence for women. It also contributes to higher household incomes, poverty reduction, and overall economic growth. In India, female labour force participation has traditionally remained lower than that of men due to several social, cultural, and economic factors. Many women are engaged in unpaid domestic work such as childcare, cooking, and household responsibilities, which are not counted as economic activities in official surveys. Other factors such as lack of safe transportation, limited access to formal jobs, wage inequality, social norms, and interruptions caused by marriage or motherhood also affect women’s participation in the workforce. |
5. Way Forward
The PLFS 2025 findings indicate that India’s labour market is showing signs of positive progress. Nevertheless, converting these improvements into sustained, productivity-driven economic growth will require focused policy measures. This includes expanding industry-oriented skill development programmes, promoting women’s participation in the workforce through gender-sensitive policies, and creating stronger access to secure employment supported by broader social protection systems and greater emphasis on green industries. In addition, specialised initiatives such as apprenticeship programmes will play an important role in bringing NEET youth back into productive economic activity
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For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
Source: The Hindu
WESTERN DISTURBANCES AND EL NINO
1. Context
India is headed into a summer of compounding extremes. A fresh Western Disturbance is set to bring unseasonal rain to the north, an El Niño year threatens a weak monsoon and intensified heatwaves, and the humidity is already making temperatures feel far worse than the thermometer reads.
2. What are Western Disturbances?
- Western Disturbances are weather systems that move eastward and bring rainfall. They develop in regions west of India, mainly around Afghanistan and Iran, and gain moisture from water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Arabian Sea.
- These systems are generally extra-tropical cyclones formed due to the interaction between cold polar winds and warm tropical winds, creating low-pressure conditions.
- They are carried by the subtropical westerly jet stream, a fast-flowing, high-altitude air current that travels from west to east above the Himalayan and Tibetan regions.
- Western Disturbances occur most frequently during the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere, especially from December to March, and significantly affect the weather of northwestern India along with neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan
3. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
- The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major climatic process characterised by variations in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean along with associated changes in atmospheric conditions above it.
- These shifts can disturb global atmospheric circulation patterns and thereby affect weather conditions across different parts of the world. ENSO has three phases — the warm phase known as El Niño, the cool phase called La Niña, and a neutral phase — and generally recurs at irregular intervals ranging from two to seven years.
- Under neutral conditions, the eastern Pacific Ocean near the western coast of South America remains cooler compared to the western Pacific around Indonesia and the Philippines.
- This temperature difference is maintained by easterly trade winds that push warm surface waters westward, allowing colder water from deeper layers to rise to the surface in the eastern Pacific.
- During an El Niño event, the eastern Pacific experiences abnormal warming of surface waters. This weakens the moisture-laden winds reaching India and often leads to a weaker or delayed monsoon, causing dry conditions in several agricultural regions.
- Studies have also linked El Niño with an increased occurrence and intensity of heatwaves in India.
- In April, the U.S. Climate Prediction Center estimated a 61% probability of El Niño developing between May and July and expected it to continue through the year.
- La Niña represents the reverse situation, where the eastern Pacific surface waters become cooler than usual.
- This strengthens the moisture-carrying winds towards India and generally enhances the southwest monsoon. However, in severe cases, the resulting heavy rainfall can trigger floods and damage crops
4. What is a Heatwave?
A heat wave refers to a prolonged spell of abnormally high temperatures that are significantly above the average climatic conditions of a particular region. Since normal temperature levels differ across regions based on historical weather patterns, the definition of a heat wave also varies accordingly. Its intensity can further increase due to factors such as high humidity, strong winds, and the length of the hot spell.
According to the criteria used by the India Meteorological Department, a heat wave may be identified when the maximum temperature reaches at least 40°C in plain areas and 30°C in hilly regions. After this threshold is crossed, a heat wave can be officially declared on two main bases:
- Departure from normal temperature:
If the temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C above the seasonal average, it is classified as a heat wave. When the temperature exceeds this range, it may be categorised as a severe heat wave. - Absolute maximum temperature:
A heat wave is automatically declared when the maximum temperature touches or surpasses 45°C. If the temperature reaches 47°C or more, it is considered a severe heat wave.
5. What are Wet bulb and Dry bulb Temperatures?
- The temperature commonly recorded using a standard thermometer is known as the Dry Bulb Temperature. It represents the actual air temperature but does not take atmospheric moisture into consideration.
- In contrast, Wet Bulb Temperature measures the lowest temperature that air can achieve through the evaporation of water, thereby indicating the efficiency of evaporative cooling under humid conditions.
- Generally, the Wet Bulb Temperature remains lower than the Dry Bulb Temperature, and the gap between the two becomes larger when the air is drier.
- According to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, continuous exposure to wet bulb temperatures above 35°C can be life-threatening.
- Even temperatures exceeding 31°C can pose serious risks during strenuous physical activity. Individuals with existing health conditions such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases are particularly vulnerable, while outdoor workers and labourers face greater danger because of dehydration and prolonged heat exposure.
- At the same time, the AR6 notes that the possibility of such extreme wet bulb temperatures persisting for more than a few hours remains very low
6.Impacts of heat waves in India
- The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
- For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
- Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
- Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
- Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
- Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
- According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
- The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
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The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
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For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
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Previous Year Questions
1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010)
1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013) |
Source: Indianexpress
GalaxEye Drishti Satellite
1. Context
First-of-its-kind satellite named Drishti by Indian start-up, GalaxEye, was launched on 3 May, 2026 by Falcon 9 rocket of SpaceX from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California, United States, as one of the 45 payloads on the CAS500-2 mission
2. Key takeaways
- Imaging satellites are typically fitted with either multi-spectral/hyper-spectral optical sensors or Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems. Both technologies are widely utilized for Earth observation purposes.
- Each of these imaging methods comes with certain drawbacks. Optical images produced through multi-spectral sensors are visually clear and easier to interpret, but their performance is affected during cloudy conditions or at night.
- In contrast, SAR technology can penetrate clouds and provide uninterrupted imaging in all weather conditions, though the resulting images are more complex and require expert analysis, much like X-ray scans.
- Optical and SAR sensors differ significantly in their design and mode of observation. Since they capture Earth from different viewing angles, a mismatch or parallax issue can occur. For example, when positioned side by side, an optical sensor may capture Bengaluru while the SAR sensor simultaneously records imagery from a different location such as Dubai. Additionally, differences in image acquisition timing can create temporal gaps, posing challenges for mission-critical operations.
- To overcome these limitations and produce clearer, more user-friendly satellite imagery, the Indian start-up GalaxEye developed the Drishti satellite.
- This satellite integrates both optical and SAR imaging systems on a single platform and synchronizes their operation to capture the same location simultaneously. As a result, users no longer need to manually align datasets collected from separate satellites.
- The Drishti satellite merges the visual clarity offered by optical imaging with the dependable all-weather capabilities of SAR technology.
- By combining both on a unified platform, it provides reliable, intuitive, and analysis-ready Earth observation data under all weather conditions. The company refers to this integrated innovation as Opto-SAR technology.
- According to the company, advanced AI-driven software operating both onboard the satellite and on the ground performs sub-pixel co-registration and jitter correction. These algorithms ensure that information from both sensors is accurately aligned and processed into a single, integrated dataset.
- This innovation is considered unique because it addresses challenges that are especially significant in tropical countries.
- Historically, most satellite companies have been based in Western nations, where weather conditions are relatively stable and skies are generally clearer.
- Unlike countries such as India, these regions face fewer problems related to persistent cloud cover, reducing the demand for such integrated imaging solution
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DRISHTI system of Indian Railways
Although the name is similar, its purpose is entirely different, so it should not be confused with other technologies bearing the same title. Indian Railways is preparing to introduce an Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven system called DRISHTI to strengthen the safety and security of freight train operations. The technology is intended to improve transparency, monitoring, and technological reliability within the freight protection framework. The AI-enabled Locking Monitoring System, known as DRISHTI, aims to replace conventional manual inspection methods, which are often labor-intensive, time-consuming, and inefficient, particularly for long-distance freight rakes operating under constantly changing conditions. |
3. India's Private Space Companies and Inventions
- Skyroot Aerospace is expected to emerge as the first private Indian firm to launch an orbital rocket, named Vikram-1. This multi-stage launch vehicle uses a combination of solid and liquid propulsion systems and is capable of carrying satellites weighing up to 350 kg into Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
— A key feature that distinguishes Vikram-1 is its construction using carbon composite materials instead of conventional metals. In addition, the rocket incorporates a fully indigenous 3D-printed engine, which significantly simplifies manufacturing and assembly while reducing production time and costs.
— Skyroot had earlier become the first private Indian company to conduct a successful single-stage sub-orbital launch in 2022, preceding another private player, Agnikul Cosmos. A sub-orbital mission travels at speeds below orbital velocity, allowing the vehicle to enter outer space without achieving a stable orbit around Earth.
- Pixxel announced on May 4 a collaboration with Sarvam AI to create India’s first orbital data-centre satellite, known as The Pathfinder.
— Scheduled to enter orbit by the end of 2026, the 200-kg satellite will carry advanced GPUs (Graphics Processing Units) that will support the training and inference functions of Sarvam AI’s models.
— In contrast to traditional satellite computing systems that depend on low-power processors designed mainly for operational survival, Pathfinder will employ hardware comparable to the advanced data-centre infrastructure used on Earth for cutting-edge AI applications.
- In 2024, Agnikul Cosmos achieved a milestone by successfully launching its maiden sub-orbital test vehicle, powered by the world’s first single-piece 3D-printed rocket engine. The engine, named Agnilet, operates using sub-cooled oxygen as propellant.
— The mission, titled “Agnibaan – SOrTeD” (Sub-Orbital Technology Demonstrator), was launched from “Dhanush,” India’s first privately developed launch pad established by Agnikul. The launch also marked India’s first rocket mission powered by a semi-cryogenic engine.
4. IN-SPACe
- In 2020, the Government of India established IN-SPACe and later introduced the Indian Space Policy 2023 to encourage wider participation of private companies in the country’s space sector.
- IN-SPACe operates as an autonomous, single-window nodal agency under the Department of Space (DoS), functioning independently to support and oversee non-governmental participation in space activities.
- The organisation serves both as a facilitator and a regulatory body. It acts as a bridge between ISRO and private enterprises while also evaluating the most effective ways to utilise India’s space assets and expand space-related operations.
- According to ISRO, IN-SPACe is entrusted with the responsibility of promoting, enabling, authorising, and supervising a range of activities undertaken by non-governmental entities. These include the development of launch vehicles and satellites, delivery of space-based services, access to infrastructure and facilities managed by DoS/ISRO, and the establishment of new space infrastructure.
- In 2025, the government finalised a revised draft of the Space Activities Bill with the objective of expanding India’s space economy to 44 billion dollars by 2033. Out of this projected market size, around 11 billion dollars is expected to come from exports. By comparison, India’s space sector was estimated to have a market value of 8.4 billion dollars in 2022.
5. What is an orbital data centre?
- It refers to a network of satellites equipped with advanced GPUs similar to those used in ground-based data centres. Unlike conventional satellites that primarily transmit data back to Earth, these satellites are capable of training and operating AI models directly in orbit.
- This enables them to perform computationally intensive tasks that go beyond the capabilities of the low-power edge processors typically used in satellites for functions such as data or signal compression.
- On Earth, edge computing involves processing data closer to its source instead of relying entirely on centralised cloud infrastructure. The same principle, when applied in space, forms the basis of space-based computing systems.
- Pixxel is developing the Pathfinder mission as a single-satellite technology demonstrator aimed at evaluating whether data-centre-grade hardware can operate effectively and reliably within the extreme thermal and environmental conditions of Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
6. Challenges
- GPU processors powered through solar energy generate significant amounts of heat during operation. Although outer space is extremely cold, it cannot naturally absorb this heat efficiently because space is a vacuum.
- In the absence of air, convection — the process through which warm air carries away heat from terrestrial servers — cannot occur.
- As a result, a GPU operating in orbit behaves like an enclosed oven, unable to dissipate excess thermal energy through airflow.
- To address this challenge, satellites rely on radiative cooling systems. Heat is transferred through loops filled with ammonia to extendable radiator panels, which then release the energy into space in the form of infrared radiation. The history of human space missions demonstrates how critical and unforgiving thermal management in space can be.
- Another major challenge is radiation exposure, which has influenced the design of nearly all long-duration space missions.
- High-energy cosmic radiation can cause “bit flips,” where computer data changes unexpectedly, and can also lead to gradual deterioration of semiconductor components over time.
- Although radiation-hardened chips are commonly used in spacecraft, they generally remain technologically behind commercial GPUs by several years.
- Power management presents an additional difficulty, since satellites must store sufficient energy to function during eclipse phases when sunlight is unavailable.
- Furthermore, maintenance or repairs in orbit are nearly impossible without specialised robotic systems, making built-in redundancy an essential aspect of spacecraft design from the beginning
7. Way Forward
India should strengthen its space-based computing ecosystem through sustained investment in indigenous AI hardware, radiation-resistant chips, and advanced thermal management technologies. Greater collaboration among private start-ups, academia, and organisations such as ISRO and IN-SPACe can accelerate innovation in orbital data centres and satellite infrastructure. A comprehensive regulatory framework under the proposed Space Activities Bill is essential to provide policy clarity, ensure cybersecurity, and encourage private investment. India must also focus on sustainable space operations by minimising space debris and promoting reusable launch systems. Expanding commercial applications in disaster management, agriculture, climate monitoring, and defence can improve the economic viability of orbital computing. Additionally, international cooperation and specialised skill development in aerospace engineering, AI, and semiconductor technologies will help India emerge as a major player in the global space economy while achieving technological self-reliance.
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For Prelims: IN-SPACe, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology
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Source: Indian Express
COMPOSITE BACKWARDNESS INDEX (CBI)
1. Context
Poor General Caste children access private education eight times more than equally poor SC and ST children. Pick four equally poor households from each broad caste group, and the gap in their CBI scores mirrors that of four richer households from each.
2. What is the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)?
- The Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) is a method used by governments and expert committees to identify how socially, educationally, and economically disadvantaged a particular community or group is when compared to the rest of society.
- Instead of looking at only one factor such as income or literacy, the index combines several indicators together to measure “backwardness” in a more comprehensive way. That is why it is called a composite index.
- In India, the idea of such an index became important mainly in the context of identifying Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs) for reservation policies and welfare measures.
- Different commissions and state governments have used versions of a backwardness index to determine which communities require special support under the constitutional principle of social justice.
- The basic logic behind the CBI is that backwardness is not caused by a single problem. A community may suffer from low literacy, poor representation in government jobs, lack of land ownership, low income levels, inadequate housing, poor access to education, social discrimination, or low participation in professional occupations.
- If only one indicator is used, the real condition of the community may not be fully understood. Therefore, the index combines multiple indicators and assigns weightage to them.
- Each indicator is given marks or weightage. After calculating the total score, communities with higher backwardness scores are identified as more disadvantaged
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For example, a backwardness index may include factors such as:
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3. Mandal Commission
- One of the most well-known uses of such an approach in India was by the Mandal Commission (Second Backward Classes Commission) established in 1979 under the chairmanship of B.P. Mandal.
- The commission developed a method to identify Other Backward Classes (OBCs) using social, educational, and economic indicators. It used multiple criteria and assigned points to determine the relative backwardness of communities.
- This became the basis for extending reservation benefits to OBCs in central government jobs and educational institutions.
- The importance of the Composite Backwardness Index lies in making welfare policies more evidence-based and objective. Rather than relying only on political demands or historical perceptions, the index attempts to scientifically measure deprivation.
- It also helps governments prioritize development schemes and affirmative action policies for communities that genuinely need support.
- However, the CBI is not free from criticism. Some scholars argue that backwardness cannot be fully captured through numerical indicators because social discrimination and historical exclusion are complex realities.
- Others argue that the data used for calculating the index may become outdated over time, especially since caste-wise socio-economic data in India is limited.
- There are also debates about the weightage given to different indicators and whether economic criteria should receive greater importance than caste-based disadvantages.
- Despite these debates, the Composite Backwardness Index remains an important tool in India’s social justice framework because it provides a structured mechanism to identify disadvantaged groups and support inclusive development
4. Telangana's Caste and Socio-Economic Survey
- A caste and socio-economic survey carried out in Telangana has highlighted deep disparities among various communities in the state. The findings, prepared by the Independent Expert Working Group on Telangana’s Socio, Economic, Educational, Employment, Political and Caste (SEEEPC) Survey, were made public on April 15. The survey itself was undertaken in 2024.
- According to the report, Backward Classes (BCs), excluding Muslim minorities, represent the largest social category in the state, accounting for 46.3% of the population. When combined with Scheduled Castes (17.4%) and Scheduled Tribes (10.4%), these groups together constitute 74.1% of Telangana’s population. Muslim minorities account for 12.6%, while Other Castes comprise 13.3%.
- Even though BCs, SCs, and STs form a majority, the survey revealed that 135 communities — including 69 BC castes, 41 SC groups, and 25 ST communities — remain more disadvantaged than earlier estimates suggested.
- In contrast, the OC category, despite making up only 13.3% of the population, enjoys a dominant presence in private-sector employment and higher education, receives comparatively better salaries, occupies larger houses, and generally experiences a superior standard of living.
- Since Telangana was formed as a separate state in June 2014, the government has made substantial investments in the education sector, with a strong emphasis on expanding English-medium learning.
- Programmes such as Mana Vooru Mana Badi focused on improving school infrastructure, introducing digital classrooms with English-medium instruction, and providing essential facilities like toilets and safe drinking water. Teacher training initiatives were also strengthened.
- These measures have led to a major generational transformation over the last decade. Among individuals in the 6–29 age group, 60.5% are now studying in English-medium institutions, whereas 35.3% continue to receive education in Telugu medium. This shift is especially visible in urban centres and among economically better-off sections of society
5. Statistics in the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)
- Several states have argued that representation in Parliament should not be determined solely by population figures, but should also take into account a state’s contribution to the national economy.
- In a similar manner, social justice policies may need to consider the actual extent of backwardness experienced by a caste, rather than relying only on its numerical strength. While economic contribution can be quantified relatively easily, assessing the degree of caste-based backwardness is far more complex.
- To address this challenge, an independent expert panel appointed by the Government of Telangana designed an evidence-based framework known as the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) to scientifically assess the relative backwardness of different caste groups.
- The framework evaluated 242 caste communities using data collected from nearly 35 million individuals through the caste survey, with each individual mapped across 75 categories of information.
- Since backwardness is a relative social condition, the index seeks to compare whether one community is placed at a greater disadvantage than another. The broader objective of social justice, therefore, is to enable historically marginalised groups to bridge these inequalities.
- Under this methodology, all 242 castes — comprising 133 BCs, 59 SCs, 32 STs, and 18 General category groups — were assessed on 42 diverse indicators.
- These included factors such as dependence on daily wage labour, access to English-medium education, availability of toilets, ownership of irrigated land, and experiences of discrimination at religious places.
- Based on these indicators, a relative backwardness score was calculated using quartile distribution techniques.
- The study is far more detailed than the framework used by the Mandal Commission in its 1980 report, which relied on only 11 indicators.
- The findings statistically confirm long-standing social observations: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are nearly three times more backward than General category groups, while Backward Classes are about 2.7 times more disadvantaged.
- The report also demonstrates that levels of deprivation vary significantly even among historically oppressed communities, providing measurable and scientific validation for these differences.
- Within the 133 BC communities studied, 69 were found to be more backward than the state average, whereas 64 performed relatively better. Among Scheduled Castes, 18 out of 59 communities were placed above the state average, while seven of the 32 Scheduled Tribe groups were similarly better positioned.
- However, these comparatively advanced groups constitute only a very small share of their overall populations. In population terms, around 99% of STs, 97% of SCs, and 71% of BCs continue to remain more backward than the state average.
- The report further concludes that access to English-medium and private education has emerged as the strongest factor influencing social advancement, outweighing even land or asset ownership.
- Communities such as Gouds, Goldsmiths, and Christians may possess limited land resources, yet perform better because of stronger access to private education.
- In contrast, groups like the Lambadi tribes, along with Mudiraj and Valmiki communities, may own relatively larger areas of irrigated land but still remain socially disadvantaged due to weaker educational access.
- The findings underline that backwardness is shaped by multiple interconnected factors, including birth-based inequalities, regional conditions, and overall living standards
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: General Studies I: population and associated issues and Social empowerment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment. (2024)
2.Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static? (2023) 3.“Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (2018) |
Source: Indianexpress
STAGFLATION
1. Context
During the 1970s and early 1980s, most Western countries experienced “stagflation”— a condition where low, if not negative, economic growth coexisted with high inflation
2. What is the stagflation?
- Stagflation is an economic condition in which three difficult problems occur at the same time: slow or stagnant economic growth, rising unemployment, and high inflation.
- The word itself is formed by combining “stagnation” and “inflation.”
- To understand it in a simple way, imagine an economy as a vehicle.
- Normally, when the economy moves forward strongly, businesses produce more, jobs increase, people earn more, and spending rises.
- In such periods, prices may also go up because demand is strong. This is ordinary inflation associated with growth.
- On the other hand, when the economy slows down, production falls, jobs may be lost, and consumer spending weakens. In such situations, prices usually tend to stabilize or even fall.
- Stagflation is unusual because it combines the worst of both situations.
- The economy is not growing, jobs are becoming scarce, yet the prices of goods and services continue to rise.
- For example, imagine that food prices, petrol costs, transport fares, and house rents are increasing every month, but at the same time companies are not hiring, salaries are not increasing, and some people are even losing jobs. This is a classic stagflationary situation.
- A common historical example is the 1970s oil crisis, when oil prices rose sharply across the world.
- Since petroleum is a major input for transport, industries, fertilizers, and electricity generation, the rise in oil prices increased the cost of production across sectors. As a result, prices rose rapidly while economic growth slowed down.
- What makes stagflation especially serious is that it is very difficult for governments and central banks to manage.
- Usually, if inflation is high, the central bank increases interest rates to reduce demand and bring prices down.
- But if the economy is already weak and unemployment is rising, increasing interest rates can slow growth even further.
- Similarly, if the government tries to stimulate growth by lowering interest rates or increasing spending, inflation may worsen
3. What comes first stagflation or recession?
- A recession and stagflation are different economic situations, and either can appear first depending on the cause of the slowdown.
- A recession usually means the economy is shrinking — production falls, businesses slow down, jobs reduce, and GDP growth turns negative for a period.
- A stagflation situation means the economy is slowing while prices are still rising sharply and unemployment is also increasing.
So, the key difference is:
- Recession = economic slowdown + low demand + usually lower inflation
- Stagflation = economic slowdown + high inflation + unemployment
4. How Stagflation is measured in India?
- In India, stagflation is not measured through a single official “stagflation index.”
Instead, economists and policymakers identify it by looking at a combination of macroeconomic indicators together. - Think of it as a three-signal diagnosis rather than one number.
- The three most important indicators are:
- Inflation
- Economic growth
- Unemployment
- When inflation remains high while growth slows and unemployment rises, the economy may be moving toward stagflation.
5. Statistics of Stagflation
- During the mid-1970s, both the United States and the United Kingdom experienced a rare and difficult economic phase marked by simultaneous slowdown and high inflation.
- In 1974, the US economy contracted by 0.5%, while the UK recorded a sharper decline of 1.7%. The weakness continued into 1975, with GDP growth rates of -0.2% in the US and -0.7% in the UK.
- At the same time, inflation remained exceptionally high. Consumer prices rose by 11.1% in the United States and 16% in the United Kingdom in 1974, followed by 9.1% and 24.2% respectively in 1975.
- A comparable phase emerged again between 1979 and 1982. During this period, the US economy showed uneven growth performance, registering 3.2% in 1979, -0.3% in 1980, 2.5% in 1981, and -1.8% in 1982. Inflation, however, remained elevated throughout, with annual consumer price increases of 11.3%, 13.5%, 10.3%, and 6.1% across these four years.
- Both of these episodes are classic examples of stagflation, a term first introduced by Iain Macleod, a British Conservative politician. In each case, the principal trigger was a severe oil price shock.
- The first shock followed the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, fought between Israel and the combined forces of Egypt and Syria. In response to Western support for Israel, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries imposed a comprehensive oil embargo on several Western nations.
- The second major oil crisis was linked to the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which disrupted oil production, and was further intensified by the Iran–Iraq War that began after Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980.
- Since then, the global economy has encountered at least three additional oil shocks — in 2008, 2022, and 2026.
- The 2008 global crisis led to economic stagnation, with growth either turning negative or remaining at very low single-digit levels, but it did not result in runaway inflation. Similarly, the 2022 Russia–Ukraine conflict pushed inflation upward, yet it did not culminate in a severe global recession
6. Demand and Supply
- In basic economic theory, market behaviour is often explained using the supply and demand model. In this framework, price (P) is shown on the vertical axis, while quantity (Q) is placed on the horizontal axis.
- The supply curve generally rises from left to right, indicating a direct relationship between price and quantity supplied. In simple terms, when prices increase, producers are motivated to supply more of a product because higher prices usually mean better profits.
- On the other hand, the demand curve slopes downward, reflecting an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. This means consumers tend to purchase more when prices are low and reduce their purchases when prices rise.
- The graph typically begins with an initial supply curve (S₀) and a demand curve (D₀). The point at which these two curves meet is known as the market equilibrium or market-clearing point. At the equilibrium price P₀, the quantity demanded by consumers Q₀ is exactly equal to the quantity supplied by producers.
- Stagflation usually emerges due to what economists call a negative supply shock. Under normal circumstances, changes in the quantity supplied occur mainly because of changes in price, while other factors — such as input costs, production technology, and supply conditions — remain unchanged.
- In such cases, the adjustment happens through movement from one point to another along the same supply curve.
- However, a negative supply shock is different. It occurs when external factors such as rising fuel prices, higher raw material costs, war, or disruptions in production reduce the overall supply capacity of the economy. This causes the entire supply curve to shift leftward, leading to higher prices and lower output simultaneously — the classic condition for stagflation.
- As discussed earlier, in the case of stagflation, the duration of the supply shock is just as important as its intensity. For instance, if the conflict involving Iran were to end quickly, and if attacks on oil refineries and natural gas facilities in West Asia have not caused major long-term damage, the supply situation could normalise soon.
- In that case, the supply curve may shift back from S₁ to S₀ rapidly enough to prevent a prolonged stagflationary phase similar to that witnessed during the 1970s oil crisis
7. Way Forward
Addressing stagflation requires a carefully balanced policy mix, because the problem involves both rising prices and slowing economic activity at the same time. Unlike normal inflation or a conventional recession, relying on a single policy instrument may worsen one side of the problem while solving the other
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS III - Indian Economy
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only Answer (a)
Mains 1.There is also a point of view that Agricultural Produce Market Committees (APMCs) set up under the State Acts have not only impeded the development of agriculture but also have been the cause of food inflation in India. Critically examine. (2014) |
Source: Indianexpress
