NILGIRI TAHR
1. Context
Tamil Nadu’s Nilgiri Tahr population has recorded a steady rise with the third synchronised population estimation conducted in April 2026, putting the count at an estimated 1,364 individuals, showing a 4.68 per cent increase over last year.
2. About Nilgiri Tahr
The Nilgiri tahr is the sole species of mountain-dwelling ungulate native to southern India, out of the twelve such species found nationwide. It holds the distinction of being Tamil Nadu’s state animal.
Historically, the Nilgiri tahr inhabited the entire stretch of the Western Ghats. However, its range has now diminished drastically, and it survives only in a few isolated patches. Much of its original population has vanished, primarily due to extensive habitat destruction and hunting pressures.
This species, which is unique to the Western Ghats, is currently classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and receives the highest level of legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
According to a 2015 report by WWF India, the wild population of Nilgiri tahrs is estimated to be around 3,122 individuals
3. Distrinution and habitat of Nilgiri tahr
- The Nilgiri tahr is a sure-footed ungulate that inhabits the open montane grassland habitats at elevations from 1200 to 2600 m of the South Western Ghats. Currently, the Nilgiri tahr distribution is along a narrow stretch of 400 km in the Western Ghats between Nilgiris in the north and Kanyakumari hills in the south of the region.
- Though there are smaller populations found in the Palani hills, Srivilliputtur, and the Meghamalai and Agasthiyar ranges, only two well-protected, large populations are documented -- one from the Nilgiris and the other from the Anamalais, including the high ranges of Kerala.
- The Eravikulam National Park in Anamalai hills, Kerala, is home to the largest population of the Nilgiri tahr, with more than 700 individuals
4. Threats for Nilgiri tahr
- The Nilgiri tahr faces several threats to its survival, primarily due to widespread deforestation, which leads to significant loss of natural habitat. Its living space is further reduced by grazing competition from domestic livestock, the development of hydroelectric projects within its native range, and the spread of monoculture plantations.
- Additionally, although rare, the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and skin.
- The severe fragmentation of its habitat has caused a sharp decline in population in recent years. Activities such as plantation expansion continue to disturb the tahr’s natural environment, especially the grasslands and shola forests that are essential for its survival
5. Mukurthi National Park
- Mukurthi National Park is a protected area located in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu and forms a part of the larger Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, which spans across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
- The park lies in the western part of the Nilgiris Plateau and is particularly significant for its unique ecosystem comprising montane grasslands interspersed with shola forests. These high-altitude tropical forests are known for their rich biodiversity and ecological importance.
- Covering an area of around 78 square kilometers, Mukurthi National Park was originally established to protect the Nilgiri tahr, an endangered mountain ungulate endemic to the Western Ghats. Over the years, it has become a vital sanctuary not only for the Nilgiri tahr but also for many other endemic and endangered species of flora and fauna.
- The landscape of the park is marked by rolling grasslands, rugged peaks, and deep valleys. It receives heavy rainfall and has a cool, misty climate for most of the year, contributing to its lush vegetation.
- The park is home to a variety of wildlife, including species such as the Indian leopard, jungle cat, jackal, sambar deer, and a diverse range of birds, reptiles, and butterflies.
- Mukurthi is part of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its exceptional biological diversity. The park also plays a crucial role in preserving water sources, as many rivers and streams originate in this region.
- Owing to its fragile ecosystem and conservation priorities, tourism in Mukurthi is tightly regulated, with limited access to ensure minimal human interference.
- Overall, Mukurthi National Park stands as a symbol of conservation efforts in the Nilgiris, especially for the protection of the Nilgiri tahr and the preservation of the unique shola-grassland ecosystem that is increasingly under threat due to habitat degradation and climate change
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For Prelims: Nilgiri tahr, Western ghats, IUCN Red List
For Mains: GS III - Environment & Ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.The "Red Data Books" published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of (UPSC CSE 2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for the conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A.1 and 3
B.2 only
C.2 and 3
D.3 only
Answer (B)
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Source: The Hindu
BHARAT STAGE EMISSION STANDARDS (BS NORMS)
1. Context
The Union Cabinet on Wednesday (June 3) approved a two-year clean mobility scheme to reduce air pollution in the Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR) that will incentivise replacement of older trucks and buses with BS-VI or stricter emission-compliant vehicles. Government vehicles will be excluded from this scheme.
2. Bharat Staege Emission Standards
- Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES) are a series of emission standards established by the Central Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles (MCVs), three-wheelers (3Ws) and four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles.
- The standards are based on the European emission standards and are designed to reduce vehicular emissions of particulate matter (PM), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
- The first BSES norms were introduced in 2000 and have been progressively tightened since then. The current BSES norms, BSVI, were introduced in 2020 and are equivalent to the Euro 6/VI norms.
- The implementation of Bharat Stage standards aims to reduce vehicular pollution and improve air quality.
- These standards become increasingly stringent with each successive stage, requiring vehicles to adopt better emission control technologies. For instance, a move from BS-IV to BS-VI involved a significant reduction in the permissible levels of pollutants, particularly in the case of diesel vehicles.
- The adoption of Bharat Stage emission standards impacts the automotive industry, requiring manufacturers to upgrade engines and exhaust systems to comply with the new regulations. It's a step toward aligning India's vehicular emission norms with global standards to mitigate environmental pollution and improve public health
3. Euro V and Euro VI norms
Euro V and Euro VI are two sets of emission standards for road vehicles in the European Union (EU). They are designed to reduce air pollution from vehicles by setting limits on the amount of pollutants that vehicles can emit.
Euro V
Euro V was introduced in 2009 and applied to all new passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, and heavy-duty vehicles sold in the EU. It tightened the emission limits for nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and hydrocarbons (HC) compared to the previous Euro IV standards. Euro V also introduced stricter limits for carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) for certain vehicle categories.
Euro VI
Euro VI is the current set of emission standards for road vehicles in the EU. It was introduced in 2014 and applies to all new passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, and heavy-duty vehicles sold in the EU. Euro VI further tightened the emission limits for NOx, PM, and HC compared to Euro V. It also introduced new limits for black carbon (BC) and particle number (PN).
Key differences between Euro V and Euro VI
The main differences between Euro V and Euro VI are:
- NOx limits: Euro VI limits NOx emissions to 0.08 g/km for gasoline vehicles and 0.4 g/kWh for diesel vehicles, compared to 0.25 g/km for gasoline vehicles and 0.18 g/kWh for diesel vehicles under Euro V.
- PM limits: Euro VI limits PM emissions to 0.0045 g/km for gasoline vehicles and 0.005 g/km for diesel vehicles, compared to 0.005 g/km for both gasoline and diesel vehicles under Euro V.
- HC limits: Euro VI limits HC emissions to 0.075 g/km for gasoline vehicles and 0.10 g/km for diesel vehicles, compared to 0.07 g/km for gasoline vehicles and 0.15 g/km for diesel vehicles under Euro V.
- Real-world driving emissions (RDE) testing: Euro VI introduced RDE testing, which measures emissions from vehicles in real-world driving conditions. This is in addition to the laboratory testing that was used under Euro V.
Impacts of Euro V and Euro VI
Euro V and Euro VI have had a significant impact on air quality in the EU. They have helped to reduce emissions of NOx, PM, and HC from road vehicles, which has improved air quality and reduced the health impacts of air pollution.
Future of Euro VI
The European Commission is currently considering the next generation of emission standards for road vehicles, which are likely to be even stricter than Euro VI. These standards are expected to focus on reducing emissions of NOx, PM, and HC, as well as introducing new limits for other pollutants such as ammonia (NH3)
4. Difference between BS-IV and the new BS-VI
| Subject | BS-IV | BS-VI |
|---|---|---|
| Pollutant Limits | Less stringent compared to BS-VI | Stricter limits on pollutants (NOx, PM, CO, HC) |
| Sulfur Content in Fuel | Higher (50 ppm for both petrol & diesel) | Lower (10 ppm for petrol, 10 ppm for diesel) |
| Emission Control Tech | Basic emission control technology | Advanced systems like SCR, DPF |
| Impact on Vehicles | Required vehicle engine & exhaust upgrades | Introduced newer, more efficient models |
| Onboard Diagnostics | Basic systems | More sophisticated monitoring systems |
| Environmental Impact | Moderate reduction in emissions | Significant reduction in vehicular emissions, improving air quality |
5.Significance of the Bharat Standard Norms
- These norms are crucial for reducing vehicular emissions of harmful pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons (HC). By setting stricter limits with each successive stage, these standards aim to improve air quality and reduce the impact of vehicular pollution on the environment and public health.
- The Bharat Stage norms align India's vehicular emission standards with global benchmarks like Euro norms. This alignment is crucial for international cooperation, facilitating technology transfer, and ensuring that vehicles manufactured in India meet global environmental standards
- The implementation of these norms drives innovation and technological advancements in the automotive industry. Manufacturers need to continually improve engine technology, exhaust systems, and emission control mechanisms to comply with these stringent standards
- Reduced vehicular emissions result in cleaner air, which has a direct positive impact on public health. Lower levels of pollutants contribute to a decrease in respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and other health issues associated with poor air quality
- The establishment and enforcement of these standards signify a commitment from the government to address environmental concerns. It involves setting policies and regulations that encourage cleaner fuel usage, adoption of advanced technologies, and compliance from automotive manufacturers
- These standards pave the way for a more sustainable transportation sector by promoting the use of cleaner fuels, encouraging the development of eco-friendly vehicles, and contributing to overall environmental sustainability
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Previous Year Questions
1. Regarding Bharat Stage (BS-VI) vehicular emissions norms, choose the correct statements : (UGC NET 2020)
A. BS (VI) emission norms are equivalent to Euro (VI) norms.
B. BS (VI) norms require the up-gradation of engine and emission control technology
C. BS(VI) norms are applicable to all categories of the vehicles including two, three and four- wheelers.
D. BS (VI) norms do not require any change in fuel quality
Choose the correct answer from the options given below
a)A, B, C, only
b)B, C, D only
c)A, C, D only
d)A, B, C, D - All
Answer (a)
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Source: The Hindu
SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHG)
1. Context
A government-commissioned evaluation of central rural sector schemes, including the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), has found that most self-help groups (SHGs) for women did not start income-generating businesses with the funds provided
2. Self Help Groups (SHGs)
- Self Help Groups (SHGs) are community-based organizations formed by a small group of individuals, usually from the same socio-economic background, who come together to collectively address their common needs and aspirations.
- These groups play a significant role in empowering marginalized and economically disadvantaged individuals, especially women, by providing them with a platform to enhance their social, economic, and decision-making capabilities.
3. Key Features and Objectives
- Collective Strength: SHGs encourage individuals to pool their resources, skills, and knowledge to collectively address challenges and opportunities.
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs promote savings and credit activities, allowing members to accumulate funds for emergencies, livelihood initiatives, and income generation.
- Empowerment of Women: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment, aiming to enhance their status, self-confidence, and participation in household and community decision-making.
- Social Cohesion: SHGs foster a sense of community, solidarity, and mutual support among members, contributing to social cohesion and collective development.
- Skill Development: SHGs often engage in skill-building activities, vocational training, and awareness programs to enhance members' livelihood opportunities.
4. Need for SHGs
The establishment of Self Help Groups (SHGs) addresses a range of socio-economic needs and challenges faced by marginalized and economically disadvantaged communities, particularly women, in various regions. The need for SHGs arises from several factors:
- Poverty Alleviation: SHGs contribute to poverty reduction by promoting income-generating activities and small-scale enterprises among members. These initiatives empower individuals to generate additional sources of income and improve their standard of living.
- Women's Empowerment: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment by providing them with a collective platform to enhance their decision-making abilities, self-confidence, and socio-economic status. This empowerment extends to their households and communities.
- Access to Credit: SHGs provide an alternative source of credit for members who may not have access to formal banks. This access to credit supports various needs, including emergencies, education, health expenses, and livelihood development.
- Entrepreneurship Promotion: SHGs promote entrepreneurial spirit by encouraging members to initiate and manage small-scale businesses. This contributes to local economic development and job creation.
- Women's Participation: By involving women in SHGs, gender norms, and stereotypes can be challenged, leading to increased participation in decision-making processes and more equitable distribution of resources.
5. Issues with SHGs
While Self Help Groups (SHGs) have proven to be effective in addressing various socio-economic challenges, they also face certain issues and challenges that can impact their functioning and overall impact. Some of the key issues with SHGs include:
- Inequitable Participation: Despite the focus on women's empowerment, SHGs sometimes face challenges in ensuring equal and meaningful participation of all members, particularly marginalized and socially excluded women.
- Dependency on External Support: Many SHGs rely heavily on external support for training, capacity-building, and financial assistance. This can hinder their long-term sustainability and self-reliance.
- Lack of Financial Literacy: Some SHG members may have a limited understanding of financial concepts and practices, making it difficult for them to effectively manage their savings and loans.
- Limited Market Linkages: While SHGs encourage income-generating activities, members often lack access to markets to sell their products or services, which can hinder their economic growth.
- Loan Default and Repayment Issues: In some cases, members struggle with loan repayment, leading to tensions within the group and potential disruptions in trust and collaboration.
6. Role of SHG in Women's Empowerment
The role of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in women's empowerment is significant and multifaceted. SHGs provide a platform that empowers women economically, socially, and personally, enabling them to enhance their status, decision-making abilities, and overall well-being. Here's an overview of the role of SHGs in women's empowerment:
Economic Empowerment:
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs provide women access to savings and credit facilities, enabling them to accumulate funds for emergencies and invest in income-generating activities.
- Income Generation: SHGs promote entrepreneurship and livelihood opportunities among women, helping them generate additional sources of income for their families.
- Asset Ownership: Through collective savings and loan activities, women can acquire assets such as land, livestock, and equipment, contributing to their economic independence.
Social Empowerment:
- Decision-Making: Participation in SHGs helps women develop confidence, leadership skills, and a voice in household and community decisions.
- Knowledge and Awareness: SHGs offer a platform for sharing information, learning about health, education, legal rights, and government programs, empowering women to make informed choices.
Personal Empowerment:
- Self-Confidence: Engaging in group activities and interacting with peers fosters self-confidence and self-esteem among women.
- Agency and Autonomy: Women gain a sense of agency over their lives, enabling them to assert their rights and negotiate with family members and external stakeholders.
Gender Equality:
- Changing Norms: SHGs challenge traditional gender norms and stereotypes by promoting women's participation in economic activities, decision-making, and leadership roles.
- Balanced Power Dynamics: Women's increased involvement in income generation and decision-making contributes to more equitable power dynamics within households.
Community Transformation:
- Ripple Effect: Empowered women within SHGs serve as role models, inspiring other women in the community to join and pursue their own empowerment journey.
- Poverty Alleviation: Economic empowerment through SHGs contributes to poverty reduction and overall community development.
7. Conclusion
The expansion of the SHG movement's horizons, evolving from its initial focus on social mobilization and financial inclusion to encompass economic development, represents a natural progression along the livelihood continuum. While the shift from being mere producers to becoming entrepreneurs is indeed a positive transition, it's crucial not to overlook the inherent differences between business enterprises and savings groups or social collectives. Governments, although supportive, have yet to demonstrate their prowess in fostering entrepreneurship within rural settings.
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For Prelims: Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Poverty Alleviation, Financial Inclusion, Women Empowerment, and Gender Equality.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the role and significance of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in empowering marginalized communities, particularly women, for socio-economic development in rural areas. (250 Words)
2. Analyse the challenges faced by SHGs in their functioning and sustainability, and suggest measures to enhance their effectiveness as vehicles for grassroots empowerment and poverty alleviation. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. The Self-Help Group (SHG) programme was originally initiated by the State Bank of India by providing microcredit to the financially deprived.
2. In an SHG, all members of a group take responsibility for a loan that an individual member takes.
3. The Regional Rural Banks and Scheduled Commercial Banks support SHGs.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one
B. Only two
C. All three
D. None
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
WESTERN DISTURBANCES AND EL NINO
1. Context
The El Niño phenomenon is fairly well known in India, thanks to widespread discussion in the media in connection with its impact on the Indian monsoon
2. What are Western Disturbances?
- Western Disturbances are weather systems that move eastward and bring rainfall. They develop in regions west of India, mainly around Afghanistan and Iran, and gain moisture from water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Arabian Sea.
- These systems are generally extra-tropical cyclones formed due to the interaction between cold polar winds and warm tropical winds, creating low-pressure conditions.
- They are carried by the subtropical westerly jet stream, a fast-flowing, high-altitude air current that travels from west to east above the Himalayan and Tibetan regions.
- Western Disturbances occur most frequently during the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere, especially from December to March, and significantly affect the weather of northwestern India along with neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan
3. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
- The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major climatic process characterised by variations in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean along with associated changes in atmospheric conditions above it.
- These shifts can disturb global atmospheric circulation patterns and thereby affect weather conditions across different parts of the world. ENSO has three phases — the warm phase known as El Niño, the cool phase called La Niña, and a neutral phase — and generally recurs at irregular intervals ranging from two to seven years.
- Under neutral conditions, the eastern Pacific Ocean near the western coast of South America remains cooler compared to the western Pacific around Indonesia and the Philippines.
- This temperature difference is maintained by easterly trade winds that push warm surface waters westward, allowing colder water from deeper layers to rise to the surface in the eastern Pacific.
- During an El Niño event, the eastern Pacific experiences abnormal warming of surface waters. This weakens the moisture-laden winds reaching India and often leads to a weaker or delayed monsoon, causing dry conditions in several agricultural regions.
- Studies have also linked El Niño with an increased occurrence and intensity of heatwaves in India.
- In April, the U.S. Climate Prediction Center estimated a 61% probability of El Niño developing between May and July and expected it to continue through the year.
- La Niña represents the reverse situation, where the eastern Pacific surface waters become cooler than usual.
- This strengthens the moisture-carrying winds towards India and generally enhances the southwest monsoon. However, in severe cases, the resulting heavy rainfall can trigger floods and damage crops
4. What is a Heatwave?
A heat wave refers to a prolonged spell of abnormally high temperatures that are significantly above the average climatic conditions of a particular region. Since normal temperature levels differ across regions based on historical weather patterns, the definition of a heat wave also varies accordingly. Its intensity can further increase due to factors such as high humidity, strong winds, and the length of the hot spell.
According to the criteria used by the India Meteorological Department, a heat wave may be identified when the maximum temperature reaches at least 40°C in plain areas and 30°C in hilly regions. After this threshold is crossed, a heat wave can be officially declared on two main bases:
- Departure from normal temperature:
If the temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C above the seasonal average, it is classified as a heat wave. When the temperature exceeds this range, it may be categorised as a severe heat wave. - Absolute maximum temperature:
A heat wave is automatically declared when the maximum temperature touches or surpasses 45°C. If the temperature reaches 47°C or more, it is considered a severe heat wave.
5. What are Wet bulb and Dry bulb Temperatures?
- The temperature commonly recorded using a standard thermometer is known as the Dry Bulb Temperature. It represents the actual air temperature but does not take atmospheric moisture into consideration.
- In contrast, Wet Bulb Temperature measures the lowest temperature that air can achieve through the evaporation of water, thereby indicating the efficiency of evaporative cooling under humid conditions.
- Generally, the Wet Bulb Temperature remains lower than the Dry Bulb Temperature, and the gap between the two becomes larger when the air is drier.
- According to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, continuous exposure to wet bulb temperatures above 35°C can be life-threatening.
- Even temperatures exceeding 31°C can pose serious risks during strenuous physical activity. Individuals with existing health conditions such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases are particularly vulnerable, while outdoor workers and labourers face greater danger because of dehydration and prolonged heat exposure.
- At the same time, the AR6 notes that the possibility of such extreme wet bulb temperatures persisting for more than a few hours remains very low
6.Impacts of heat waves in India
- The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
- For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
- Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
- Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
- Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
- Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
- According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
- The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
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The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
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For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
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Previous Year Questions
1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010)
1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013) |
Source: Indianexpress
FREE TRADE AGREEMENT
1. Context
The India-Oman free trade agreement (FTA) signed in December last year, entered into force on June 1, at a time when the sustained blockade of the Strait of Hormuz is triggering wider macroeconomic worries. Of particular concern is India’s high dependence on imported fuel, fertilisers, and key industrial input items
2. About the Free Trade Agreement
- A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
- FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
- The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
- By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.
3. Types of Free Trade Agreement
- Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them. It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
- Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
- Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
- Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
- Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
- Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
- Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.
4. India's Free Trade Agreements
India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others. India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs.
- The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
- The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
- The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
- The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
- The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
- The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.
5. India - UK Free Trade Agreement
5.1. Background
- Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
- The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
- By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
- India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
- While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.
5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)
- The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
- One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
- For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
- It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
- These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
- If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
- In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
- Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
- Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
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For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union,
For Mains:
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 B. 3, 4, 5 and 6 C. 1, 3, 4 and 5 D. 2, 3, 4 and 6
Answer: C
2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. Answer: C 3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled Answer: D 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C
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Source: The Hindu
COMPOSITE BACKWARDNESS INDEX (CBI)
1. Context
Poor General Caste children access private education eight times more than equally poor SC and ST children. Pick four equally poor households from each broad caste group, and the gap in their CBI scores mirrors that of four richer households from each.
2. What is the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)?
- The Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) is a method used by governments and expert committees to identify how socially, educationally, and economically disadvantaged a particular community or group is when compared to the rest of society.
- Instead of looking at only one factor such as income or literacy, the index combines several indicators together to measure “backwardness” in a more comprehensive way. That is why it is called a composite index.
- In India, the idea of such an index became important mainly in the context of identifying Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs) for reservation policies and welfare measures.
- Different commissions and state governments have used versions of a backwardness index to determine which communities require special support under the constitutional principle of social justice.
- The basic logic behind the CBI is that backwardness is not caused by a single problem. A community may suffer from low literacy, poor representation in government jobs, lack of land ownership, low income levels, inadequate housing, poor access to education, social discrimination, or low participation in professional occupations.
- If only one indicator is used, the real condition of the community may not be fully understood. Therefore, the index combines multiple indicators and assigns weightage to them.
- Each indicator is given marks or weightage. After calculating the total score, communities with higher backwardness scores are identified as more disadvantaged
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For example, a backwardness index may include factors such as:
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3. Mandal Commission
- One of the most well-known uses of such an approach in India was by the Mandal Commission (Second Backward Classes Commission) established in 1979 under the chairmanship of B.P. Mandal.
- The commission developed a method to identify Other Backward Classes (OBCs) using social, educational, and economic indicators. It used multiple criteria and assigned points to determine the relative backwardness of communities.
- This became the basis for extending reservation benefits to OBCs in central government jobs and educational institutions.
- The importance of the Composite Backwardness Index lies in making welfare policies more evidence-based and objective. Rather than relying only on political demands or historical perceptions, the index attempts to scientifically measure deprivation.
- It also helps governments prioritize development schemes and affirmative action policies for communities that genuinely need support.
- However, the CBI is not free from criticism. Some scholars argue that backwardness cannot be fully captured through numerical indicators because social discrimination and historical exclusion are complex realities.
- Others argue that the data used for calculating the index may become outdated over time, especially since caste-wise socio-economic data in India is limited.
- There are also debates about the weightage given to different indicators and whether economic criteria should receive greater importance than caste-based disadvantages.
- Despite these debates, the Composite Backwardness Index remains an important tool in India’s social justice framework because it provides a structured mechanism to identify disadvantaged groups and support inclusive development
4. Telangana's Caste and Socio-Economic Survey
- A caste and socio-economic survey carried out in Telangana has highlighted deep disparities among various communities in the state. The findings, prepared by the Independent Expert Working Group on Telangana’s Socio, Economic, Educational, Employment, Political and Caste (SEEEPC) Survey, were made public on April 15. The survey itself was undertaken in 2024.
- According to the report, Backward Classes (BCs), excluding Muslim minorities, represent the largest social category in the state, accounting for 46.3% of the population. When combined with Scheduled Castes (17.4%) and Scheduled Tribes (10.4%), these groups together constitute 74.1% of Telangana’s population. Muslim minorities account for 12.6%, while Other Castes comprise 13.3%.
- Even though BCs, SCs, and STs form a majority, the survey revealed that 135 communities — including 69 BC castes, 41 SC groups, and 25 ST communities — remain more disadvantaged than earlier estimates suggested.
- In contrast, the OC category, despite making up only 13.3% of the population, enjoys a dominant presence in private-sector employment and higher education, receives comparatively better salaries, occupies larger houses, and generally experiences a superior standard of living.
- Since Telangana was formed as a separate state in June 2014, the government has made substantial investments in the education sector, with a strong emphasis on expanding English-medium learning.
- Programmes such as Mana Vooru Mana Badi focused on improving school infrastructure, introducing digital classrooms with English-medium instruction, and providing essential facilities like toilets and safe drinking water. Teacher training initiatives were also strengthened.
- These measures have led to a major generational transformation over the last decade. Among individuals in the 6–29 age group, 60.5% are now studying in English-medium institutions, whereas 35.3% continue to receive education in Telugu medium. This shift is especially visible in urban centres and among economically better-off sections of society
5. Statistics in the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI)
- Several states have argued that representation in Parliament should not be determined solely by population figures, but should also take into account a state’s contribution to the national economy.
- In a similar manner, social justice policies may need to consider the actual extent of backwardness experienced by a caste, rather than relying only on its numerical strength. While economic contribution can be quantified relatively easily, assessing the degree of caste-based backwardness is far more complex.
- To address this challenge, an independent expert panel appointed by the Government of Telangana designed an evidence-based framework known as the Composite Backwardness Index (CBI) to scientifically assess the relative backwardness of different caste groups.
- The framework evaluated 242 caste communities using data collected from nearly 35 million individuals through the caste survey, with each individual mapped across 75 categories of information.
- Since backwardness is a relative social condition, the index seeks to compare whether one community is placed at a greater disadvantage than another. The broader objective of social justice, therefore, is to enable historically marginalised groups to bridge these inequalities.
- Under this methodology, all 242 castes — comprising 133 BCs, 59 SCs, 32 STs, and 18 General category groups — were assessed on 42 diverse indicators.
- These included factors such as dependence on daily wage labour, access to English-medium education, availability of toilets, ownership of irrigated land, and experiences of discrimination at religious places.
- Based on these indicators, a relative backwardness score was calculated using quartile distribution techniques.
- The study is far more detailed than the framework used by the Mandal Commission in its 1980 report, which relied on only 11 indicators.
- The findings statistically confirm long-standing social observations: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are nearly three times more backward than General category groups, while Backward Classes are about 2.7 times more disadvantaged.
- The report also demonstrates that levels of deprivation vary significantly even among historically oppressed communities, providing measurable and scientific validation for these differences.
- Within the 133 BC communities studied, 69 were found to be more backward than the state average, whereas 64 performed relatively better. Among Scheduled Castes, 18 out of 59 communities were placed above the state average, while seven of the 32 Scheduled Tribe groups were similarly better positioned.
- However, these comparatively advanced groups constitute only a very small share of their overall populations. In population terms, around 99% of STs, 97% of SCs, and 71% of BCs continue to remain more backward than the state average.
- The report further concludes that access to English-medium and private education has emerged as the strongest factor influencing social advancement, outweighing even land or asset ownership.
- Communities such as Gouds, Goldsmiths, and Christians may possess limited land resources, yet perform better because of stronger access to private education.
- In contrast, groups like the Lambadi tribes, along with Mudiraj and Valmiki communities, may own relatively larger areas of irrigated land but still remain socially disadvantaged due to weaker educational access.
- The findings underline that backwardness is shaped by multiple interconnected factors, including birth-based inequalities, regional conditions, and overall living standards
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: General Studies I: population and associated issues and Social empowerment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment. (2024)
2.Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static? (2023) 3.“Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (2018) |
Source: Indianexpress
HYPERSONIC MISSILE
1. Context
India on 9th May, achieved a major breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) accomplished a 1,200-second runtime of its actively cooled scramjet full-scale combustor. The test was conducted at the Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) facility in Hyderabad, building on the successful 700-plus second test carried out in January.
2. Key takeaways
- The missile is a hypersonic cruise weapon capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, or approximately 6,100 km per hour, for sustained durations.
- This capability has been made possible through an advanced supersonic air-breathing propulsion system that employs indigenously developed liquid hydrocarbon endothermic fuel, high-temperature Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), and sophisticated manufacturing technologies.
- It is equipped with an advanced actively cooled scramjet combustor featuring a novel flame-stabilisation mechanism that enables a continuous combustion process even when air flows through the combustor at speeds exceeding 1.5 km per second.
- The Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) has been jointly developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory and facilities under the Department of Science and Technology.
- This specialised coating is engineered to endure the extremely high temperatures generated during hypersonic flight. The newly developed ceramic-based TBC possesses superior thermal resistance and can function at temperatures exceeding the melting point of steel.
3. What are Hypersonic missiles?
- Hypersonic missiles are advanced weapon systems capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, which means at least five times faster than the speed of sound.
- Depending on atmospheric conditions, this translates to speeds exceeding nearly 6,000 km per hour.
- Their combination of extremely high speed, manoeuvrability, and lower flight trajectory makes them difficult to detect, track, and intercept compared to conventional ballistic missiles.
- These weapons are considered a major advancement in modern military technology because they can rapidly strike targets while reducing the reaction time available to defence systems.
- Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are first launched into the atmosphere using a rocket booster. After reaching a certain altitude, the glide vehicle separates from the rocket and glides toward its target at hypersonic speeds
4. Cruise vs Ballistic missiles
- Ballistic missiles operate on the principle of projectile motion to deliver warheads to designated targets. They remain powered only during the initial phase of flight, after which they travel largely under the influence of gravity and aerodynamic forces.
- These missiles are generally classified according to their operational range and may be equipped with either conventional or nuclear warheads.
- A major feature that distinguishes hypersonic cruise missiles from ballistic missiles is their manoeuvrability.
- Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a predictable ballistic path, hypersonic missiles can alter their trajectory during flight and navigate dynamically toward their intended targets.
- Cruise missiles typically travel at relatively low altitudes close to the Earth’s surface, whereas ballistic missiles move along a high-altitude parabolic trajectory.
- Because ballistic missiles follow a more predictable flight path, they are comparatively easier to detect and track.
- In contrast, the high manoeuvrability and low-altitude flight profile of cruise missiles make them more challenging for air defence systems to intercept
5. Scramjet vs Ramjet
- Air-breathing propulsion technology has the potential to revolutionise launch vehicle design.
- According to Indian Space Research Organisation, various global space agencies are actively developing three major categories of air-breathing engines: Ramjet, Scramjet, and Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ).
- In ramjet propulsion systems, the engine relies on the vehicle’s forward speed to compress incoming air for combustion, eliminating the need for a rotating compressor.
- Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber, where it combines with the compressed hot air and ignites. Since ramjets cannot generate thrust at low speeds, they require external assistance, such as rocket boosters, to accelerate the vehicle to operational speed.
- ISRO notes that ramjet engines perform most effectively at supersonic velocities of around Mach 3 and can function up to approximately Mach 6.
- However, their efficiency declines once the vehicle enters the hypersonic speed regime.
- A Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, commonly known as a Scramjet, is a more advanced form of ramjet engine designed for efficient operation at hypersonic speeds.
- Unlike conventional ramjets, scramjets enable combustion while the airflow inside the engine remains supersonic.
- In this system, air enters through the front intake, fuel combusts in the central chamber, and high-speed exhaust gases exit from the rear to generate thrust.
- A Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) combines the operational features of both ramjet and scramjet technologies.
- Within the Mach 4 to Mach 8 speed range, the engine transitions from ramjet mode to scramjet mode, allowing it to function efficiently under both subsonic and supersonic combustion conditions
6. Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system
- On May 7, the Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with the Indian Air Force successfully conducted the maiden flight test of the TARA system, a technology designed to convert unguided munitions into guided weapons.
- The TARA glide weapon system mainly functions as a modular attachment that can be integrated with a standard unguided warhead. Once fitted, it enables the weapon to glide across extended distances and engage targets with greater accuracy.
- The system is understood to employ a combination of inertial navigation technology and satellite-based guidance for directing the missile toward its designated target.
- Instead of depending on a rocket propulsion mechanism, the TARA system operates through a glide-based approach. This design makes the weapon comparatively lightweight and economical while also enhancing its operational range.
- Through this technology, conventional unguided or gravity bombs can be upgraded into precision-guided smart munitions with minimal modification. As a result, the need for developing completely new missile platforms can be significantly reduced
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For Prelims: Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system, Ballistic missiles, Hypersonic missiles
For Mains: GS III - Science and technology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023)
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
Source: Indianexpress
