BIOREMEDIATION
- Bioremediation, in simple terms, refers to using biological agents to revive or clean polluted environments.
- It relies on microorganisms — including bacteria, fungi, algae, and even certain plants — to capture, break down, or neutralise hazardous substances like petroleum spills, pesticides, plastics, and heavy metals. These organisms treat the contaminants as nutrients, decomposing them into safer end-products such as carbon dioxide, water, and organic acids.
- In some situations, they can also alter toxic metals into more stable, less harmful forms that do not seep into soil or groundwater.
- Bioremediation is generally classified into two categories. In situ bioremediation involves treating pollutants at the site itself, for instance by introducing oil-degrading bacteria directly onto an ocean spill.
- Ex situ bioremediation, on the other hand, requires excavating the contaminated soil or water, processing it at a specialised facility, and then returning it once it is detoxified.
- Contemporary bioremediation blends conventional microbiology with advanced biotechnology.
- Emerging tools allow scientists to study biological systems more precisely, identify molecules with beneficial traits, and reproduce them under controlled conditions — such as in wastewater treatment systems or on farmlands.
- For instance, genetically engineered microbes are being developed to break down stubborn pollutants like plastics and persistent oil residues that natural organisms cannot efficiently degrade
- India’s fast-paced industrial growth has taken a significant toll on the environment. Even though pollution levels are showing gradual improvement, major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna continue to be burdened with untreated household waste and industrial discharge.
- Additional threats — including oil spills, pesticide accumulation, and heavy metals — continue to endanger natural ecosystems as well as human health.
- Conventional methods of environmental clean-up are costly, require high energy inputs, and sometimes generate new forms of pollution.
- In contrast, bioremediation provides a more affordable, scalable, and eco-friendly solution — particularly valuable in a country where large areas of soil and water are contaminated but financial and technological resources remain limited.
- India’s rich biological diversity further strengthens this approach. Native microbial species, already adapted to local climate and conditions such as extreme heat or salinity, often perform better than foreign microbial strains
- Bioremediation is slowly becoming more prominent in India, although much of the work is still at the trial or experimental stage. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), through its Clean Technology Programme, has been funding various initiatives and promoting collaboration between academic institutions, government research bodies, and industry players.
- The CSIR–National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) is actively involved in developing and implementing bioremediation-related projects.
- At the Indian Institutes of Technology, scientists have tested innovations such as a cotton-based nanocomposite that can absorb oil spills, and others have discovered microbial strains capable of breaking down hazardous contaminants in soil.
- The private sector is also beginning to participate. Startups like Biotech Consortium India Limited (BCIL) and Econirmal Biotech are providing microbial products aimed at treating polluted soil and wastewater.
- Despite this growth, large-scale deployment still encounters obstacles. Key issues include inadequate understanding of local contamination conditions, the diverse and complex nature of pollutants, and the absence of uniform national standards for bioremediation practices
- Countries around the world are already incorporating bioremediation into their environmental management systems. Japan uses combinations of microbes and plants as part of its urban waste treatment approach.
- In the European Union, multinational projects are funded to deploy microorganisms for cleaning oil spills and rehabilitating former mining regions. China, under its national soil pollution control programme, has prioritised bioremediation and is using genetically enhanced microbial strains to revive degraded industrial zones.
- For India, the potential is significant. Bioremediation can rejuvenate polluted rivers, recover degraded land, and decontaminate industrial areas, while simultaneously generating employment in fields such as biotechnology, environmental services, and waste-treatment industries.
- It can also complement existing government initiatives like Swachh Bharat Mission, Namami Gange, and various clean-technology programmes
- Releasing genetically modified organisms into natural ecosystems requires strict oversight to avoid unforeseen ecological consequences.
- If testing is insufficient or containment measures fail, such interventions may create new challenges even as they attempt to address existing ones.
- Meaningful public participation will also be essential to ensure wider acceptance of emerging biotechnologies.
- To expand bioremediation safely, India will need updated biosafety regulations, proper certification mechanisms, and a skilled workforce.
Environmentally Friendly
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Uses natural organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and plants.
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Breaks down pollutants into harmless by-products like water, CO₂, or organic acids.
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Minimises secondary pollution compared to chemical or mechanical treatments.
Cost-Effective
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Generally cheaper than traditional remediation methods that require heavy machinery, chemicals, or high energy consumption.
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Suitable for developing countries with limited cleanup budgets.
Sustainable and Self-Propagating
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Microorganisms can multiply and continue degradation without continuous human intervention.
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Supports long-term ecological restoration.
Versatile
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Effective against a wide range of contaminants: petroleum oils, pesticides, plastics, sewage sludge, heavy metals (in altered forms), and industrial effluents.
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Can be applied to soil, groundwater, wastewater, marine environments, and sediments.
In Situ Application Reduces Disturbance
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Many bioremediation processes can occur directly at the contaminated site.
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Eliminates the need to transport hazardous material, reducing risk and cost.
Enhances Soil and Water Quality
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Restores soil fertility by promoting microbial diversity and organic content.
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Improves water quality in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater systems.
Scalable and Adaptable
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Can be applied on small patches of polluted land as well as large, industrially degraded regions.
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Indigenous microbial strains adapt well to local environmental conditions.
Supports Circular Economy & Green Jobs
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Creates employment opportunities in biotechnology, environmental consulting, waste management, and research.
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Integrates with green technology initiatives like Swachh Bharat Mission, Namami Gange, and waste-to-wealth programmes.
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For Prelims: bioremediation, microorganisms , In situ bioremediation
For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1. Bioremediation is most effective in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020)
A) Solid waste management Answer (C) Mains 1.Examine the role of bioremediation in environmental sustainability (UPSC CSE GS III 2019) |
TRADE DEFICIT
- Trade balance is a measure of how much a country earns from selling goods to other countries compared to how much it spends on buying goods from abroad. It tells us whether a nation is bringing in more money through exports or sending out more money due to imports.
- If a country exports more than it imports, it has a trade surplus, meaning it earns extra foreign currency and its economy may appear stronger in terms of external trade.
- On the other hand, if imports are higher than exports, the country experiences a trade deficit, which means it is spending more on foreign goods than it is earning through exports.
- The trade balance is an important part of a country’s Balance of Payments because it reflects the health of international trade, affects the value of its currency, and influences economic policies.
- In simple terms, it shows whether a country is “selling more than it buys” or “buying more than it sells” in the global market
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3. India's Exports
- India’s overall exports in October 2025 dipped by 0.7%, settling at $72.9 billion. This decline was mainly driven by a significant fall in merchandise exports, which dropped by 11.8% to $34.4 billion. In contrast, the services sector performed strongly, registering an 11.9% increase during the same month.
- However, this weak merchandise performance in October did not substantially alter the broader trend.
- When viewed across the April–October 2025 period, India’s total exports still posted a 4.8% rise. During these seven months, merchandise exports inched up by 0.6%, while services exports expanded by 9.75%.
- India achieved its highest-ever quarterly export levels in both the first and second quarters. This led to the strongest export showing in the first half of any financial year, driven largely by robust growth in services exports.
- It is also worth noting that the major challenges India currently faces—particularly the 50% tariffs imposed by the United States—impact only merchandise exports and not the services sector
4. Sectors that are affected by this trend
- In October 2025, many labour-intensive industries experienced sharp declines in their export figures.
- Shipments of leather and related goods dropped by 15.7%, gems and jewellery fell by 29.5%, exports of organic and inorganic chemicals were down by 21%, engineering goods declined by 16.7%, cotton yarn by 13.3%, man-made yarn by 11.8%, and jute by 27.8%, among others.
- Since the United States is a major buyer of most of these products, the recently imposed tariffs have dealt a heavy blow to these sectors.
- Although exporters are attempting to move into new markets and broaden their global reach, reworking supply chains is a slow process, meaning these challenges are likely to continue for some more months
- A trade deficit can create several challenges for a country, affecting both its economy and long-term growth prospects. When a nation imports more than it exports, money flows out of the economy, and this imbalance can have a range of consequences.
- One disadvantage is the increased reliance on foreign capital. To finance a persistent trade deficit, a country may have to borrow from abroad or attract foreign investment.
- Over time, this can lead to rising external debt and greater vulnerability to global financial fluctuations. If investors lose confidence, the country may face sudden capital outflows or currency instability.
- A large trade deficit can also put downward pressure on the domestic currency. As more foreign currency is demanded to pay for imports, the value of the national currency may depreciate.
- A weaker currency makes imports costlier, contributing to inflation, which in turn can reduce purchasing power and increase the cost of living.
- Another drawback is the potential harm to domestic industries. When imports surge, local producers may struggle to compete with cheaper or higher-quality foreign goods.
- This can lead to reduced production, job losses, and even the closure of certain industries. Over time, the country might become less self-reliant, depending heavily on imported goods and services.
- Moreover, a sustained trade deficit can signal deeper structural problems—such as low productivity, limited export diversification, or a lack of competitiveness in global markets. These issues can slow economic growth and hinder future development if not addressed through policy measures
- Achieving a balanced trade—where exports and imports remain reasonably aligned—requires a mix of policy interventions, structural reforms, and long-term economic strategies. Here is an explanatory, non–bullet-point answer:
- A balanced trade situation can be fostered by strengthening a country’s export capacity while ensuring that imports remain sustainable. One of the most important steps is improving the competitiveness of domestic industries.
- This involves investing in better infrastructure, reducing logistics costs, enhancing technology adoption, and supporting innovation so that Indian products can match or outperform global competitors. When goods become competitive in quality and price, export growth naturally strengthens.
- At the same time, diversification of export markets and products is crucial. Relying too heavily on a few countries or sectors makes trade vulnerable to external shocks such as tariffs, geopolitical tensions, or global demand fluctuations.
- By expanding into new regions and promoting high-value sectors—like pharmaceuticals, electronics, engineering goods, and services—India can reduce risk and stabilize export earnings.
- Another measure is encouraging domestic manufacturing to reduce unnecessary imports. Policies such as “Make in India,” production-linked incentives, and support for MSMEs help develop local supply chains that can replace imported goods. This not only saves foreign exchange but also boosts employment and industrial growth.
- Trade agreements also play a major role. Negotiating fair and strategic free trade agreements can open new markets for Indian exporters while ensuring that local industries are protected from excessive import competition.
- Clear, stable trade policies help build confidence among exporters and attract investment into export-oriented sectors.
- Improving ease of doing business is equally important. Simplified customs procedures, faster clearances, efficient ports, and digital trade facilitation make exporting smoother and cheaper. Reducing compliance burdens encourages more firms—especially small and medium enterprises—to participate in global trade.
- Finally, macroeconomic stability supports balanced trade. A stable currency, controlled inflation, and prudent fiscal policies make exports more predictable and imports manageable. When the domestic economy is stable, it creates an environment where trade can grow without creating imbalances
This issue can be examined from different angles. On the export front, India’s merchandise shipments are likely to remain under strain for as long as the 50% U.S. tariffs continue. Even so, the trade friction between India and the United States has begun to ease somewhat. Both countries completed the sixth round of negotiations on a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) in October, signalling renewed progress.
Officials from both sides have once again started expressing optimism about finalising at least the initial phase of the BTA. Such discussions had paused right after the steep tariffs were imposed, so their revival is a positive development. If the question of tariffs is resolved in the early part of the agreement, India’s merchandise exports could regain momentum.
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For Prelims: Trade Deficit, Balance of Payments (BoP), Exports, Imports
For Mains: GS III - Economy
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 B. 3, 4, 5 and 6 C. 1, 3, 4 and 5 D. 2, 3, 4 and 6
2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output.
3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-A, 4-D, 5- C
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PAY COMMISSION
- In India, Pay Commissions are constituted through an executive order following a decision by the Cabinet. Their primary function is to examine various aspects related to the pay structure, retirement benefits, and service conditions of Central Government employees, including members of the armed forces, and to suggest appropriate revisions wherever necessary. The establishment of the first Pay Commission dates back to the year 1946
- A Pay Commission is an official body appointed by the Government of India to review and recommend changes to the salary structure, allowances, and pension benefits of Central Government employees, including defence personnel.
- Its main purpose is to ensure that government employees are fairly compensated in line with the changing economic conditions of the country and the rising cost of living.
- The idea of a Pay Commission originated soon after independence. The First Pay Commission was established in 1946, even before India became fully independent.
- Since then, the government has set up a new Pay Commission roughly every ten years to revise the pay structure in keeping with inflation, fiscal capacity, and evolving economic realities.
- So far, seven Pay Commissions have been constituted. The most recent one, the Seventh Pay Commission, was headed by Justice A.K. Mathur and submitted its report in 2015, which was implemented in 2016.
- Each Pay Commission is tasked with examining the existing pay scales of government employees and making recommendations to rationalize them. It studies the disparities between different levels of employees, the balance between civilian and defence personnel salaries, and also the comparison between government and private sector pay levels.
- The Commission’s recommendations aim to promote equity, efficiency, and satisfaction among employees, while ensuring that the government's financial burden remains sustainable.
- The impact of Pay Commissions is significant. Their recommendations affect the income of around 47 lakh serving employees and over 50 lakh pensioners, which also has a multiplier effect on state governments and the economy as a whole.
- Implementation of Pay Commission recommendations often leads to increased consumer spending, but it can also put pressure on government finances due to the rise in salary and pension expenditure
- The Terms of Reference (ToR) for each Pay Commission are approved by the Union Cabinet. In the case of the 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC), its ToR directs the body to take into account several key factors while framing its recommendations.
- These include the overall economic situation of the country and the need to maintain fiscal discipline, the requirement to allocate sufficient funds for developmental and welfare initiatives, the financial burden posed by non-contributory pension schemes, and the likely effect of its recommendations on the finances of State governments, which often follow the CPC’s suggestions.
- Additionally, the Commission is expected to assess the existing pay and working conditions in Central public sector undertakings as well as in the private sector to ensure a balanced and realistic approach
- Across the world, until the 1970s, public sector pay structures were primarily designed to ensure equity by aligning government salaries with those in comparable private sector roles. During the 1980s, however, the focus shifted from equity to efficiency, emphasizing productivity and optimal resource use.
- From the 1990s onward, compensation systems began to integrate performance-based pay and incentives, while also considering the government’s financial capacity. Today, public sector remuneration models are evolving further to attract and retain skilled and competent individuals, all while keeping overall expenditure under control.
- According to international benchmarks, a fair public sector compensation framework should be guided by a clear pay philosophy and should ensure the ability to attract capable talent, maintain fairness within the system (internal equity), remain competitive with the external job market, and provide transparency in structure and rationale.
- In the Indian context, although internal equity receives considerable emphasis, pay competitiveness with the private sector—particularly for senior-level positions—continues to lag behind.
- Interestingly, comparative data from other major democracies reveal that, contrary to the popular belief that India’s public sector is oversized, inefficient, and overpaid, the country actually fares lower on most indicators of public sector employment and wage levels when compared with other large democratic nations
Several important elements within the Terms of Reference (ToR) of the Pay Commission merit closer examination. To begin with, the ToR directs the Commission to compare public sector pay structures with those in the private sector—a task that previous Pay Commissions have also undertaken. It has consistently been observed that while entry-level positions in government service tend to offer higher salaries than comparable roles in the private sector, the situation reverses at senior levels and for specialized positions. In the Seventh Pay Commission, the compression ratio—which measures the difference between the lowest and highest salaries in the Central government—was set at 1:12.5. Though government jobs offer various privileges, perks, and the assurance of job security that partly compensate for lower pay at senior levels, it may now be necessary to reconsider this structure, especially for top and expert-level roles, to ensure the government can attract and retain skilled professionals.
Another aspect worth noting is that the ToR does not explicitly address non-monetary factors such as professional development opportunities, training, workplace flexibility, or health and well-being initiatives. It is anticipated that the Pay Commission will take these qualitative factors into account in its final recommendations, recognizing their growing importance in shaping an effective and motivated public workforce
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For Prelims: Pay Commission, Finance Commission, Article 280, Fiscal Consolidation, Fiscal Federalism, and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the Role and Challenges of the Finance Commission in Promoting Fiscal Federalism and Ensuring Equitable Resource Distribution in India. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. With reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2011)
A. It encourages the inflow of foreign capital for infrastructure development.
B. It facilitates the proper distribution of finances among the Public Sector Undertaking.
C. It ensures transparency in financial administration.
D. None of the statements (a), (b), and (c) given above is correct in this context.
Answer: D
2. With reference to the Fourteenth Finance Commission, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2015)
1. It has increased the share of States in the central divisible pool from 32 percent to 42 percent.
2. It has made recommendations concerning sector-specific grants.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
3. Which of the following is/are among the noticeable features of the recommendations of the Thirteenth Finance Commission? (UPSC 2012)
1. A design for the Goods and Services Tax, and a compensation package linked to adherence to the proposed design.
2. A design for the creation of lakhs of jobs in the next ten years in consonance with India's demographic dividend.
3. Devolution of a specified share of central taxes to local bodies as grants
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
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ARTIFICIAL GENERAL INTELLIGENCE (AGI)
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AGI refers to a machine or software capable of executing any intellectual task within the human capacity. AGI aims to replicate human cognitive functions, enabling it to tackle unfamiliar challenges, learn from novel experiences, and apply acquired knowledge innovatively.
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The primary distinction between AGI and the more prevalent form of AI, termed narrow AI, lies in their breadth and capabilities. Narrow AI is engineered for specific tasks like image recognition, translation, or strategic games like chess, where it can surpass human performance, yet it remains constrained within predefined parameters. Conversely, AGI envisions a broader, more generalized intelligence akin to humans, not confined to singular tasks, which positions it as the pinnacle of AI advancements.
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The concept of AGI first surfaced in the 20th century through a seminal paper by Alan Turing, renowned as the progenitor of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.
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Theoretically, AGI holds vast potential across diverse domains such as healthcare, education, finance, and commerce.
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Despite the promising prospects of AGI, it elicits widespread concerns for various reasons. Notably, the immense computational resources required for AGI development raise apprehensions regarding its environmental impact, stemming from energy consumption and e-waste generation. Additionally, AGI adoption could precipitate significant job displacement and exacerbate socioeconomic disparities.
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AGI deployment may introduce novel security vulnerabilities, and its rapid advancement might outpace regulatory frameworks established by governments and international bodies. Moreover, reliance on AGI could potentially erode fundamental human skills and capabilities. Yet, the most pressing concern surrounding AGI is the possibility of its capabilities surpassing human comprehension, rendering its actions unpredictable and challenging to decipher
Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be categorized into various types based on their capabilities and functionalities.
Here are the main categories:
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Narrow AI (Weak AI): Narrow AI is designed to perform specific tasks within a limited domain. These AI systems excel at performing one particular task or a set of closely related tasks, but they lack the ability to generalize or adapt to new situations outside their predefined scope. Examples of narrow AI include virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa, recommendation systems, spam filters, and autonomous vehicles.
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General AI (Strong AI): General AI refers to AI systems with the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across different domains, similar to human intelligence. These systems possess cognitive abilities that enable them to solve a wide range of problems and tasks, adapt to new environments, and learn from experience. True general AI, which is capable of performing any intellectual task that a human can do, remains a theoretical concept and has not yet been achieved.
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Artificial Superintelligence (ASI): Artificial Superintelligence is an advanced form of AI that surpasses human intelligence in virtually every aspect. ASI would possess cognitive abilities far superior to the most intelligent human beings and could potentially solve complex problems and challenges beyond human comprehension. Achieving ASI remains a subject of speculation and debate in the field of AI research
AI has a wide range of applications across various sectors and industries. Some of the key areas of AI application include:
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Healthcare: AI is used for medical image analysis, disease diagnosis, personalized treatment recommendation, drug discovery, patient monitoring, and healthcare management systems.
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Finance: In finance, AI is employed for algorithmic trading, fraud detection, risk assessment, credit scoring, customer service automation, and investment portfolio management.
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Education: AI applications in education include personalized learning platforms, intelligent tutoring systems, automated grading systems, adaptive learning tools, and educational content creation.
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Retail: In retail, AI is used for demand forecasting, inventory management, customer segmentation, recommendation systems, pricing optimization, and supply chain management.
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Transportation: AI is utilized in autonomous vehicles, traffic management systems, route optimization, predictive maintenance of vehicles, ride-sharing platforms, and logistics optimization.
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Manufacturing: AI applications in manufacturing include predictive maintenance, quality control, supply chain optimization, robotic automation, production scheduling, and process optimization.
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Customer Service: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants are used for customer support, helpdesk automation, natural language understanding, sentiment analysis, and personalized customer engagement.
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Marketing and Advertising: AI is used for targeted advertising, content recommendation, customer segmentation, sentiment analysis, campaign optimization, and social media analytics.
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Cybersecurity: AI is employed for threat detection, anomaly detection, malware analysis, behavior analysis, network security, and incident response in cybersecurity applications.
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Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP applications include language translation, sentiment analysis, chatbots, speech recognition, text summarization, and language generation.
| What is the Turing test?
The Turing test, proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950, is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a human. The test is based on the premise that if a machine can engage in natural language conversation with a human evaluator to the extent that the evaluator cannot reliably distinguish between the machine and a human, then the machine is considered to possess artificial general intelligence (AGI). Here's how the Turing test typically works:
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Achieving Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) poses numerous challenges, both technical and ethical.
Some of the key challenges associated with AGI include:
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Complexity of Human Intelligence: Human intelligence is multifaceted and encompasses various cognitive abilities, including perception, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional intelligence. Replicating these diverse capabilities in an AI system presents a significant technical challenge.
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Generalization and Adaptation: AGI systems must be able to generalize their knowledge and skills across different domains and adapt to new environments, tasks, and situations. Achieving robust generalization and adaptation capabilities remains a major research challenge in AI.
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Ethical and Societal Implications: The development and deployment of AGI raise ethical concerns regarding its potential impact on society, including issues related to job displacement, socioeconomic inequality, privacy, autonomy, and existential risks. Ensuring the responsible and ethical use of AGI is crucial but challenging.
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Safety and Control: AGI systems could potentially exhibit unpredictable behavior or unintended consequences, posing safety risks to humans and the environment. Ensuring the safety and controllability of AGI systems, including mechanisms for robust error handling and human oversight, is a critical challenge.
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Explainability and Interpretability: AGI systems are expected to make decisions and take actions autonomously, raising concerns about their transparency and interpretability. Ensuring that AGI systems can provide explanations for their decisions and actions in a human-understandable manner is essential for trust and accountability.
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Data Quality and Bias: AGI systems rely heavily on data for learning and decision-making, and the quality of the data can significantly impact their performance and behavior. Addressing issues such as data bias, fairness, and representativeness is crucial to prevent AI systems from perpetuating existing societal biases and inequalities.
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Resource Constraints: Building and training AGI systems require significant computational resources, including high-performance computing infrastructure and large-scale datasets. Overcoming resource constraints while ensuring scalability and efficiency is a practical challenge in AGI research.
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Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Achieving AGI requires collaboration across various disciplines, including computer science, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, and ethics. Bridging the gap between these disciplines and integrating diverse perspectives is essential for advancing AGI research effectively
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-III: Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.
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Previous Year Questions
1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs 3. Disease diagnosis 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion 5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b) (b) 1, 3, and 4 only Explanation:
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NATIONAL CLEAN AIR PROGRAM (NCAP)
2. Abour National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was initiated by the Indian government to address the alarming levels of atmospheric pollution, particularly the concentration of Particulate Matter (PM). Under NCAP, cities in India exceeding annual PM levels are required to develop and execute Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs) annually. To support this initiative, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has allocated ₹10,422.73 crore.
Challenges in NCAP Implementation
Despite the proactive submission of CAAPs by most cities, the implementation of NCAP has faced inconsistencies. According to the Ministry, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized on average, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, cities like Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent minimal percentages of their NCAP funds, hindering progress.
Barriers to Implementation
- Delays in implementation primarily stem from bureaucratic hurdles and a lack of standard operating procedures.
- Approval delays from competent authorities, such as technical specifications for tendering processes and procurement of necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, have been significant impediments.
- Additionally, the absence of well-defined timelines and time-consuming tasks further exacerbate delays.
- Overcoming these challenges requires a systematic approach integrating Emissions Inventory (EI), Air Quality (AQ) modelling, and Source Apportionment (SA).
- Recent findings questioning the efficacy of outdoor smog towers have also fueled doubts among decision-makers, necessitating a comprehensive reevaluation of proposed mitigation measures.
3. Role of Scientific Tools in Pollution Management
Scientific tools play a crucial role in addressing air pollution challenges, particularly in identifying and understanding its origins.
- EI studies provide valuable insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, enabling experts to forecast future emissions and shape targeted pollution control strategies.
- Despite their usefulness, EI studies have limitations, especially in assessing the impact of transboundary pollution sources, such as stubble burning outside Delhi, on local air quality.
- SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
- However, they lack predictive capabilities and require substantial resources for chemical analysis.
- Additionally, SA studies struggle to differentiate between pollution origins with similar chemical signatures, such as emissions from diesel trucks nearby versus those further away.
- AQ modelling bridges gaps left by EI and SA studies by informing our understanding of pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
- By simulating the movement of pollutants in the atmosphere, AQ modelling enhances our ability to assess and mitigate air pollution's impacts.
4. Utilization of Scientific Data in Air Pollution Management
- Cities ideally utilize Emissions Inventory (EI) and Source Apportionment (SA) data to identify air pollutants and devise targeted mitigation measures for each polluting activity.
- However, according to the Portal for Regulation of Air Pollution in Non-Attainment Cities, only 37% of cities have completed EI and SA studies, leaving 63% without a clear understanding of their air pollution sources.
- This lack of data raises concerns about the effectiveness of Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs), as cities may not accurately gauge the emission reduction potential of proposed measures.
- To address this, cities must establish proper yearly targets based on their potential and infrastructure capabilities.
Challenges and Considerations
- The reliance of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) on concentration data, which measures population exposure to pollution, adds complexity.
- Pollution from high-emitting industries and sources beyond city limits, transported into urban areas by wind, complicates urban air quality management.
- Additionally, many existing control measures primarily target primary PM emissions, overlooking their secondary precursors.
- There's a need for a shift towards comprehensive strategies addressing both primary and secondary pollutants.
- Furthermore, while NCAP aims to establish infrastructure for air quality forecasting, only a few cities like Delhi, Pune, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad have implemented decision-support systems.
- Implementing such systems across cities is crucial for timely and effective pollution management.
5. Key Factors for NCAP Success
The success of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) relies on several critical elements beyond just data and models.
- Efficient implementation on the ground is paramount. To achieve this, implementation agencies must streamline bureaucratic processes by adopting shared, standardized technical evaluations. This will expedite the execution of NCAP initiatives and ensure timely action on pollution reduction measures.
- Given that NCAP funding is tied to cities' performance in reducing annual average PM concentrations, proactive budgeting and meticulous time management are essential. Initial plans should encompass thorough assessments of technical feasibility, budget requirements, and timeframes to facilitate successful execution.
- NCAP's vision for cleaner air in India necessitates a multifaceted approach. Success requires integrating rigorous scientific studies, strategic allocation of funds, and prompt, efficient implementation of mitigation measures.
6. The Way Forward
The successful implementation of the NCAP requires concerted efforts to address challenges, utilize scientific data effectively, and adopt a comprehensive approach towards pollution management. By addressing these key factors, India can make significant progress towards achieving cleaner air for its citizens.
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For Prelims: National Clean Air Programme, Air Pollution, Particulate Matter, Clean Air Action Plans For Mains:
1. What are the challenges and opportunities presented by the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) for improving air quality in Indian cities? Discuss the measures required to overcome implementation hurdles and ensure the effective management of air pollution. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? (UPSC 2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 2. Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution? (UPSC 2020)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
3. What is the ‘Greenhouse Gas Protocol’? (UPSC 2016) (a) It is an international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify and manage greenhouse gas emissions
(b) It is an initiative of the United Nations to offer financial incentives to developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adopt eco-friendly technologies.
(c) It is an inter-governmental agreement ratified by all the member countries of the United Nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to specified levels by the year 2022
(d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+ initiatives hosted by the World Bank
4. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among (UPSC 2013) (a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight
(b) CO, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight
(c) CO, CO2 and NO2 at low temperature
(d) high concentration of NO2 O3 and CO in the evening
5. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen
(b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
(c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide
(d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide
6. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions
7. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change recently published the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, in 2020. Which of the following statements is correct about EIA? (Punjab Civil Service 2020)
1. It predicts the effect of a proposed industrial/infrastructural project on the environment.
2. It prevents the proposed activity/project from being approved without proper oversight or taking adverse consequences into account.
3. It compares various alternatives for a project and seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
4. As per the new notification, Coal and non-Coal mineral prospecting and solar photovoltaic projects do not need prior environmental clearance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. Only 1 and 2
B. Only 2, 3 and 4
C. Only 1, 2 and 3
D. Only 1, 2 and 4
8. Headquarters of the World Meteorological Organization is located in (NDA 2017)
A. Washington B. Geneva C. Moscow D. London
9. With reference to the 'Global Climate Change Alliance', which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is an initiative of the European Union.
2. It provides technical and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their development policies and budgets.
3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
10. The IPCC is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change. IPCC stands for: (RRB NTPC CBT 2 2022)
A. Intergovernmental Provision on Climate Change
B. International Panel on Climate Change
C. International Provision on Climate Change
D. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
11. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)
Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank.
Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons.
Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1.
A. takes up B. happens C. causes D. creates
12. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
13. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012)
A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat
B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
C. all the solar radiations
D. the infrared part of the solar radiation
14. As per the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of a balanced diet, to avoid unhealthy weight gain, total fat should NOT exceed _______ of total energy intake. (UPSSSC Mandi Inspector 2019)
A. 20% B. 30% C. 10% D. 40%
15. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the water purification systems? (UPSC 2012)
1. It inactivates/kills the harmful microorganisms in water.
2. It removes all the undesirable odours from the water.
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid particles, removes turbidity and improves the clarity of water.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
16. Which of the following ultraviolet rays is more dangerous? (UPTET 2017)
A. UV-A B. UV-B C. UV-C D. None of the above
17. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
18. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam 2022)
A. Toulene B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Carbon monoxide
19. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are of great concern because (UGC NET Environmental Science 2020)
A. Once such compounds are in the vapour state, they are difficult to control in the environment.
B. Most of them are ozone-depleting substances
C. They contribute to a general increase in reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.
D. They are less soluble in water.
Answers: 1-B, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-B, 9-A, 10-D, 11-B, 12-A, 13-D, 14-B, 15-A, 16-C, 17-D, 18-A, 19-C
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CRITICAL MINERALS
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Sunday met South African President Cyril Ramaphosa on the sidelines of the G-20 Summit here.
The two leaders discussed cooperation in various areas, including trade, investment, mining, critical minerals, AI, and food security.
- Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
- Lithium
- Cobalt
- Graphite
- Gallium
- Indium
- Tungsten
- Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
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- Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
- According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
- The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
- By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
- Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
- Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
- Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
- Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.
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For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions, cleaner energy, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,
For Mains:
1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010)
Mineral 90%Natural sources in
1. Copper Jharkhand
2. Nickel Orissa
3. Tungsten Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022)
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 1, 2 and 4
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018)
Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy.
A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I)
C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false
D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true
Answer: C
6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017)
A. Lead Acid B. Manganese C. Lithium ion D. Nickel metal hydride
Answer: C
7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)
A. gold, nickel and palladium
B. gold, cobalt and palladium
C. gold, titanium and platinum
D. gold, magnesium and palladium
Answer: A
8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)
A. isotopes B. isomers C. isotones D. allotropes
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013)
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 4 and 5 only C. 1, 3 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: B
14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021)
A. 1851 B. 1951 C. 1871 D. 1931
Answer: A
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